Learnin

g

kit

---

Le

Carrefour de la réussite au collégial

was created by the Fédération des cégeps to

support colleges in the implementation of programs geared to student success. This includes

the organization of conferences, symposiums, thematic workshops, regional meetings and the

development of learning tools for detection and diagnostic purposes.

Le Carrefour

has identified eight major improvement axes and developed learning kits that

offer colleges access to improvement activities.

This learning kit is the eighth in the series and deals with the evaluation of learning. It was

developed by Mr. Hermann Guy and its content does not necessarily reflect the opinion of Le

Carrefour or that of La Fédération des cégeps.

Carrefour de la réussite au collégial

March

2004

---

A word of thanks

Special thanks to Michel Poirier, consultant with Groupe GRA Performa, for his involvement and

valuable contribution and to Pierre Deshaies, educational advisor at Collège de Shawinigan, for his

texts and his ongoing collaboration.

Contributing authors:

We would like to thank the following authors who inspired and enriched this learning kit on “the

evaluation of learning” and their editors who authorized the reproduction of texts, in particular:

D’AMOUR, Cécile and the Groupe de travail Performa,

L’évaluation des apprentissages au

collégial : du cours au programme

, [s. l.], 1996.

http://www.educ.usherb.ca/performa/documents/fiches/D’Amour et al.htm

]

, Université de

Sherbrooke, Performa.

HOWE, Robert et Louise MÉNARD, “Croyances et pratiques en évaluation des apprentissages”,

Pédagogie collégiale

, vol. 7, n

o

3, 1994, p. 21-27.

LEGENDRE, Marie-Françoise, “Favoriser l’émergence de changements en matière d’évaluation des

apprentissages”,

Vie pédagogique

, n

o

120, September-October 2001, p. 15-19.

LOUIS, Roland,

L’évaluation des apprentissages en classe : Théorie et pratique

, Montréal, Éditions

Études Vivantes, 1999.

Translation by Write

2

thepoint (write2thept@aol.com)

To avoid redundancy and for ease of reading, the masculine gender is used in this learning kit.

---

Table of contents

Tab

page

1

General presentation

7

2

Chapter 1:

Beliefs and practices in the evaluation of learning

23

3

Chapter 2:

From teaching to learning: impact on evaluations

49

4

Chapter 3:

The vision and impact of study programs centered on competencies

89

5

Chapter 4:

Definitions and policies relative to the evaluation of

learning

129

6

Chapter 5:

Establishing a general evaluation strategy

171

7

Chapter 6:

Procedures for developing an evaluation

201

8

Chapter 7:

A comprehensive program assessment

313

9

Complementary documents

355

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Page 7 of 383

General presentation

Introduction

The evaluation of learning

Contents of the learning kit

Topics covered in this document

Sensitization activities

Learning tools and support documentation

Mediagraphy

Introduction

The evaluation of learning plays a vital role in pedagogical strategies at all teaching levels: from

primary schools with their new programs, to collegial level with the establishment of programs

defined by competencies. Evaluations have become a major topic of concern today. Change requires

new approaches and an intellectual understanding of new practices is not enough. Individuals must

find meaning in them. As Gerard Scallon writes, the question is not new but the goals are different

and new questions are being raised:

“Why perform an evaluation? ... This is some question! Many answers have been provided and there

is a multitude of works on the subject. Every decade or so, we rewrite the answers based on the

educational system, expectations and ideologies of the time. Like any question, it must be

meaningful at the time it is asked and it must also have meaning for the person asking it. […]

During the last four decades, Quebec’s school system has undergone major changes. Over time, we

have experienced different periods of reflection. Teachers today face major challenges. They must

assimilate programs targeting the development of competencies. New teaching approaches and

practices incorporating project-based learning and student cooperation must be mastered. Teachers

must collaborate with many people both inside and outside the teaching profession. Let us also

underline that evaluations have become the major concern of the hour. It is sometimes necessary to

substitute or integrate totally new approaches to prior knowledge and skills. Knowing “how to

evaluate” is important, but knowing “why to evaluate” is what gives meaning to the evaluation

practice. And, to further complicate matters, the answer is not univocal or completely impartial, since

it belongs to the person doing the evaluation […].

In the past, evaluations were designed to bring pressure to bear, to accelerate the progress. They were

also a symbol of a certain power. This approach to evaluation is gone, or at least dying out.

Evaluation practices have been refined and must now be backed by solid arguments. The idea of

monitoring student progress in order to maximize educational success is now widely accepted as a

guiding principle and integrating concept.”

1

1

Translated from Gérard Scallon, “Pourquoi évaluer?… Quelle question!”, Vie pédagogique, no 120, September-October

2001, p. 20-23.

.

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Page 8 of 383

Emerging changes

Changing from a program driven by objectives to a program based on the development of

competencies alters the traditional role of evaluations. Learning rather than knowledge becomes the

object of our evaluation. As Marie-Françoise Legendre states, the instructor’s professional judgment

plays a key role:

“To evaluate is to make an assessment without necessarily knowing the consequences that ensue. To

be evaluated has far-reaching consequences (Lemay, 2000). It is therefore not surprising that the

evaluation of learning is seen as a key element in current educational reform.”

2

New trends in the evaluation of learning have been part of the Québec pedagogical landscape for

some time now. Their importance is more pronounced today than ever before. However, once the

chaotic implementation stage is over, the desire to understand the nature and basis for change will

become stronger. André Chabot summarizes it this way:

“Generally-speaking, over the last twenty years, the evaluation of learning has experienced

changes in:

— study program structure (competency-based approach)

— learning concepts: from behaviourism to cognitivism and constructivism

— evaluation types: from normative to criteria-based evaluations

— evaluation objectives: from knowledge to competencies

— evaluator’s role: from an individual perspective to a program approach

— evaluation tools: from tests based on knowledge to problem situations

— learning results: from grades expressed in percentages to descriptive results

The main research and pedagogical movements to influence these changes are: cognitive psychology

and the organization of the learner’s prior knowledge, transfer of learning and metacognition (when to

use this or that way of proceeding), motivation and the social context of learning (cooperative

approach).

In the United States and Europe, the movement for authentic evaluations has brought about a

paradigm shift in the role of evaluations. Today an evaluation is seen as a learning tool more than a

selection tool.

An evaluation is authentic when:

— it provides an accurate assessment of student ability to carry out key intellectual

tasks;

— the student can demonstrate his skills and what he has learned;

— the student encounters a broad range of situations that incorporate valid learning

activities, rich and stimulating situations: projects, performance tests,

discussions, etc.;

— the student is allowed to work on improving and fine-tuning his answers (product

or process);

— criteria are used to assess the quality of the response.

2

Translated from Marie-Françoise Legendre, “Favoriser l’émergence de changements en matière d’évaluation des

apprentissages

”

,

Vie pédagogique

, n

o

120, September-October 2001, p. 15-19.

---

Page 9 of 383

For some time now, new methods have been used to test the different roles and the timing of

evaluations. New tools such as self-evaluations, networks of concepts and portfolios enable a student

to participate even more actively in his learning through formative and summative evaluations […]

From now on, development relating to the evaluation of learning will be focused on the objects of

evaluation (competency and the process by which students acquire it), the quality of the tools and

results that are communicated to students in an ongoing fashion, according to the competency

profile.”

3

The evaluation of learning

The evaluation of learning is a complex part of instructional planning. However, practices are many

and varied and practitioners are not always clear as to the foundations on which they are built. The

competency-based approach that now guides the design of study programs, calls for changes in

current teaching practices.

“The inherent limitations in the widespread use of standardized tests led specialists and teachers to

look for other ways of evaluating student learning. Other factors include the growing influence of

cognitivist thinking and constructivism and an academic curriculum based on competency

development. All of the above have a profound effect on the conception and implementation of the

evaluation of learning.” (Laliberté, 1995)

Influences relative to the evaluation of learning in a general

collegial context

include: the type of

instruction and the evaluation models used for program development, cognitive psychology and the

new paradigm in the evaluation of learning.

Training at collegial level and the evaluation approach

“The primary goal of college education is to teach students to be autonomous and to resolve complex

problems in a variety of real life and work situations. In a program approach, the disciplines, subject

matter and courses are subordinate to the development of generic, professional and socio-cultural

competencies. The goals are competencies, such as: integration of knowledge, intellectual capacities,

psychomotor and technological skills as well as socioaffective capacities or dispositions that allow for

adequate and effective action, for the analysis and modification of situations (solutions,

improvement), and taking charge of one’s own cultural, social and professional development.

Competency consists in the ability and resources we need to carry out our role and responsibilities, to

accomplish our activities and tasks.

What is of concern at the collegial level is competency as a precursor to mastery, as a potential for

mastery. The challenge in evaluation within an academic framework is the ability to reflect a valid

and accurate image of student competency levels in one or more fields.”

4

3

Translated from André Chabot, “Les nouvelles tendances en évaluation des apprentissages”,

Reflets

, vol. 8, n

o

1,

Cégep de Chicoutimi, December 1997. [http://www2.cgodin.qc.ca/carrefour/lectures.htm

].

4

Translated from François Vasseur et al, “Journée pédagogique portant sur l’élaboration d’un système d’évaluation des

apprentissages dans le cadre de la nouvelle PIEA”, Cégep de La Pocatière, October 1998.

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Page 10 of 383

Developmental models for study programs

5

When a new program development model is introduced in education, two questions immediately

arise: does the model provide answers to the problems that teachers have identified and how does this

new model differ from previous models? Let us briefly examine these two areas.

In Québec as elsewhere, the first programs were designed around a table of contents specific to

disciplinary subject matter: a succession of components joined into a logical sequence. Instruction

had one goal: to explore a specific content adequately. However we saw that knowledge, even when

taught in a logical way, was not enough for the student to develop competencies; the course had to be

included within a training program.

Thereafter, programs and courses were described in terms of objectives. Inspired by behaviourist

psychology, these programs made it possible to clarify the vagueness of our good intentions vis-à-vis

instruction. Learning objectives were defined, as were student behaviours and evaluation criteria.

However, the learning objectives were so unrelated that one course could contain more than fifty

objectives; additionally, these objectives were parceled out in teaching sequences, like individual

atoms dispersed in space. The result meant losing sight of the real learning objectives in courses and

programs. Finally, the programs were centered on evaluation rather than support for the integration of

learning and the development of complex cognitive capacities.

Chapter 3 of this learning kit deals specifically with the subject of developmental models for study

programs.

Influences of cognitive psychology

6

The transition from a pedagogy based on first-generation objectives to a competency-based pedagogy

is related to the evolution of psychology and recent discoveries on the brain and learning. (See the

table on page 15, (

The influence of psychology on teaching and learning).

Cognitive psychology

concepts are compatible with learning focused on the development of competencies.

Chapter 2 of this kit deals specifically with the influence of cognitive psychology.

An evaluation of learning based on the new paradigm

The recommended evaluation is in line with this new paradigm

7

:

— the evaluation is appropriate to complex, multidimensional, integrated and

transferable learning;

— the evaluation truly supports learning;

— the summative evaluation results are interpreted versus the targeted results

(interpretation based on evaluation criteria);

— the evaluation supports forward-thinking methodology that values the role of

professional judgment and recognizes student accountability.

5

Translated from Pierre Deshaies, Hermann Guy and Michel Poirier, “Un modèle d’élaboration des programmes”,

Recueil intégrateur, Section I : Une vision intégrée de la formation au collégial

, regroupement des collèges Performa,

2003.

6

Ibid.

7

Translated from Cécile D’Amour and Groupe de travail à Performa,

L’évaluation des apprentissages au collégial : du

cours au programme

, Fascicule II. Cadre de référence. Première partie: Les questions préalables, first edition, [s. l.],

April 1996, p. 15-18.

---

Page 11 of 383

At collegial level, the evaluation of learning falls under the aegis of the new paradigm; moreover, it

must be carried out in a professional manner and within the program framework.

Chapter 2 of this kit specifically covers the evaluation of learning based on the new paradigm.

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Page 12 of 383

Contents of the kit

The evaluation of learning in a competency-based approach raises many questions and the documents

in this kit help provide some answers. The answers are as numerous as the concepts on which the

practices are based.

Underlying learning and evaluation concepts have a strong influence on instruction and evaluation

practices. Useful knowledge in this context is knowledge that allows the teacher to enrich the “frame

of reference” on which he relies to decipher situations and make the right choices. The

implementation of a competency-based program by the teacher implies its necessary interpretation.

What guides the teacher in his interpretation are not only the characteristics of the situation but also

the mental model he creates of it using his frame of reference. This frame of reference is supported

by a whole range of knowledge that is not static but dynamic.

To avoid pitfalls, we must understand underlying concepts and their influence on practices…

There are two major pitfalls in academic reform:

— Reform without change: giving current practices new packaging and rhetoric.

Our way of doing things does not change, only our way of describing the

activities.

— Change without a solid foundation: adopting new practices without

understanding the concepts and principles on which they are based. They change

our way of doing things without necessarily influencing our underlying beliefs.”

8

Chapter 1 “Beliefs and practices in the evaluation of learning” makes it possible to actualize the

perception an individual has of evaluation practices and the model he uses.

Chapter 2 “From teaching to learning: impact on evaluations” introduces the basis for change and

allows for the identification of essential characteristics that impact the new paradigm in the evaluation

of learning.

Chapter 3 “The vision and impact of study programs centered on competencies” attempts to describe

and validate the impact of instructional programs targeting the development of competencies.

Chapter 4 “Definitions and policies relative to the evaluation of learning” sheds light on current

evaluation models, principles and policies that guide evaluation practices.

Chapter 5 “Establishing a general evaluation strategy” highlights the importance of a general plan for

the competency assessment, which determines how formative and summative evaluations will be used

in practice.

Chapter 6 “Procedures for developing an evaluation” provides general procedures and detailed steps

for planning an evaluation.

Chapter 7 “The comprehensive program assessment” provides a broad outline for developing a

comprehensive program assessment. This type of evaluation at collegial level will enrich the frame of

reference and relevant practices.

The topics discussed in this document are outlined more explicitly in the following pages.

8

Translated from Marie-Françoise Legendre, “Présentation sur le thème des grandes orientations de la réforme”,

ministère de l’Éducation du Québec, February 15, 2000.

---

Page 13 of 383

Topics presented in this document

Chapter 1: Beliefs and practices in the evaluation of learning

— My evaluation practices

— My beliefs relative to the evaluation of learning

— Evaluation based on the new paradigm

Chapter 2: From teaching to learning: impact on evaluations

— From a teaching paradigm to a learning paradigm

— A new paradigm in the evaluation of learning

— Bringing change to the evaluation of learning

Chapter 3: The vision and impact of study programs centered on competencies

— Development of a study program

— The concept of competency

— The characteristics of a competency and its influence on planning and evaluation

— The principles connected to competency assessment

— The basic concept of an authentic evaluation

Chapter 4:

Definitions and policies relative to the evaluation of learning

— A definition of the evaluation of learning

— Principles underlying the evaluation of learning

— Principles and rules that guide the evaluation of learning

Chapter 5:

Establishing a general evaluation strategy

— Planning levels

— Components of a general evaluation strategy

— Development of a general evaluation strategy

Chapter 6:

Procedures for developing an evaluation

— Analyze the targeted learning

— Identify and specify the items to be evaluated

— Choose and validate the tasks and evaluation tools

— Develop tools to collect data and for the evaluation judgment

— Communicate the results and provide students with feedback

Chapter 7:

A comprehensive program assessment

— The definition of a comprehensive program assessment

— The object of evaluations: essential learning

— Conditions for a valid comprehensive evaluation

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Page 14 of 383

— Three grids for evaluation or self-evaluation in a comprehensive program

assessment

The table shown on the next page,

The influence of psychology on teaching and learning

, summarizes

the influence of behaviourism and cognitive psychology on the concepts of teaching and learning,

students, evaluations and the instructor’s role. A synthesis of the contributions made by these two

psychological approaches helps us better grasp the nature of the changes underway, their pedagogical

components and their impact on the planning of teaching

9

activities and the evaluation of learning.

This frame of reference conditions the pedagogical choices discussed in this document.

9

Translated from Pôle de l’Est, “Pour une analyse détaillée des influences de la psychologie cognitive sur la planification de

l’enseignement et de l’apprentissage”,

L’enseignement et l’apprentissage : un cadre conceptuel

, see Chapter 10, 1992,

p. 195-221.

---

Page 15 of 383

.

Behaviourism

Concept of teaching

—

creation of an environment centered on

the development of behaviour;

— creation of an environment that breaks up

the content;

— creation of an environment that organizes

content as a series of prerequisites;

— creation of a coercive environment by the

teacher.

Concept of teaching

— creation of an environment based on

student’s prior knowledge;

— creation of an environment centered on

cognitive and metacognitive strategies;

— creation of an environment with complete

and complex tasks.

Concept of learning

— learning occurs through the association of

stimulus and response;

— learning is primarily imitation;

— learning is achieved successively.

Concept of learning

— learning occurs through the gradual

increase in knowledge;

— learning occurs when prior knowledge

integrates new information;

— learning requires the organization of

knowledge;

— learning occurs through global tasks.

Concept of teacher’s role

— the teacher intervenes frequently;

— the teacher is a trainer.

Concept of teacher’s role

— the teacher intervenes frequently;

— the teacher is a trainer;

— the teacher is a mediator between

knowledge and the student.

Concept of evaluation

— the evaluations are frequent;

— the evaluation relates to behaviour

displayed;

— the evaluation is often formative,

sometimes summative;

— feedback relates to performance results.

Concept of evaluation

— the evaluations are frequent;

— the evaluations relate to knowledge as

well as cognitive and metacognitive

strategies;

— the evaluation is often formative,

sometimes summative;

— feedback is centered on the strategies

being used;

— feedback is focused on the construction of

knowledge.

Concept of learner

— the learner responds to environmental

stimuli;

— the learner is reactive;

— the learner is motivated by external

factors.

Concept of learner

— the learner participates actively;

— the learner demonstrates a constructive

attitude;

—

the learner is motivated in part by his

perception of the value of the task and by

the control he has over his success.

Translated from an adaptation by Tardif (1992)

Translated from Pôle de lest,

Processus de planification d’un cours centré sur le développement d’une compétence

,

regroupement des collèges Performa, December 1996, p. 9.

---

Page 16 of 383

Sensitization activities

Activity 1:

Beliefs and practices in the evaluation of learning

Activity 1.1:

Evaluation practices

Activity 1.2:

My beliefs concerning the evaluation of learning

Activity 2:

Characteristics of an evaluation of learning marked by the new

paradigm

Activity 3:

Characteristics of competencies and their impact on course planning

and the evaluation of learning

Activity 3.1:

Study programs and the concept of competency

Activity 3.2:

Characteristics of a competency and their impact

Activity 3.3:

Principles related to competency assessment and the contribution of

an authentic assessment

Activity 4:

Definition and policies which guide the evaluation of learning

Activity 4.1:

Definitions

Activity 4.2:

Policy

Activity 5:

General evaluation strategy

Activity 5.1:

Example of a general evaluation strategy

Activity 5.2:

Planning levels

Activity 5.3:

Components of a general evaluation strategy

Activity 5.4:

The development of a general evaluation strategy

Activity 6:

Planning the evaluation for the final exam

Activity 6.1:

The training objective

Activity 6.2:

The objects of evaluation, performance indicators and evaluation

criteria

Activity 6.3:

The evaluative task

Activity 6.4:

The marking grid

Activity 6.5:

Communicating the results

Activity 7:

Evaluating a comprehensive program assessment

---

Page 17 of 383

Learning tools and documents

The number of the learning tools and documents corresponds to the sensitization activity number.

— Learning tool 1.A:

Evaluation practices

— Learning tool 1.B:

The evaluation of learning based on the new paradigm

— Learning tool 1.C:

Self-evaluation of beliefs relative the evaluation of

learning

— Learning tool 1.D:

“Beliefs and practices in the evaluation of learning”

— Complementary document 1:

Student perceptions and expectations

— For reference:

Results of the research on “Beliefs and practices in the

evaluation of learning”

— Learning tool 2.A:

From a teaching paradigm to a learning paradigm

— Learning tool 2.B:

Summary of the characteristics of the two paradigms

— Learning tool 2.C:

Statements for discussion

— Learning tool 2.D:

Summary of the characteristics of learning evaluations

based on the new paradigm

— Document 2.A:

A new paradigm in the evaluation of learning

— Document 2.B:

To support the emergence of change in the evaluation of

learning

— Document 2.C:

To bring changes to the evaluation of learning

— Complementary document 2:

Alternate ways of designing and evaluating learning

— Learning tool 3.A:

Development of a study program

— Learning tool 3.B:

Definition of a competency

— Learning tool 3.C:

Characteristics of a competency and their impact on

course planning and the evaluation of learning

— Learning tool 3.D:

Characteristics of a competency and their impact on

course planning

— Learning tool 3.E:

Characteristics of a competency and their impact on the

evaluation of learning

— Learning tool 3.F:

Principles connected to competency assessment

— Learning tool 3.G:

The authentic evaluation

— Learning tool 3.H:

Tension between traditional and modern ways of thinking

— Document 3.A:

Development of a study program

— Document 3.B:

Assessment in authentic situations: underlying principles

---

Page 18 of 383

— Complementary document 3:

LASNIER, François, Principles of an evaluation in

competency-based learning (Competency Based Training)

linked to principles of competency-based learning

— Learning tool 4.A:

A definition of the evaluation of learning

— Learning tool 4.B:

Guiding principles for the evaluation of learning

— Learning tool 4.C:

Definitions applicable to the evaluation of learning

— Learning tool 4.D:

Comparing three types of evaluations

— Learning tool 4.E:

Principles and rules that govern my actions

— Document 4.A:

“Principles and rules which guide the evaluation

of learning”

— Supporting document: Document 2.C: “To bring changes to the evaluation of learning”

— Learning tool 5.A:

Example of a general evaluation strategy and related

documentation

— Learning tool 5.B:

Course planning levels: from ministerial specifications to

Lesson planning

— Learning tool 5.C:

Course planning based on competency development

— Learning tool 5.D:

The components and tools pertinent to a general evaluation

strategy

— Complementary document 4:

From planning stages to the evaluation plan for the final

course test

— Learning tool 6.A:

Procedures for developing an evaluation plan and tools for

collecting data and making judgments

— Learning tool 6.B:

Tasks for the analysis of a learning target

— Learning tool 6.C:

Tool for the analysis of a competency

— Learning tool 6.D:

Tasks to identify objects of evaluation

— Learning tool 6.E:

Tasks appropriate for the evaluation of learning

— Learning tool 6.F:

The description of an authentic situation

— Learning tool 6.G:

Guidelines for choosing evaluation methods

— Learning tool 6.H:

Tasks to build data collection tools

— Learning tool 6.I:

Sample marking grid designed at Cégep Saint-Laurent

— Learning tool 6.J:

Tasks to communicate evaluation results

— Document 6.A:

Tools for evaluations in authentic situations

— Document 6.B:

How to assess competencies

— Learning tool 7.A:

The definition of a comprehensive program assessment

— Learning tool 7.B:

Objects of evaluation: essential learning

The exit profile

What is evaluated is being taught

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Page 19 of 383

The grid of shared responsibilities for instruction

— Learning tool 7.C:

A valid comprehensive program assessment:

Prerequisites

The preparation of the student throughout program

The choice of evaluation test

Sample comprehensive program assessment

— Learning tool 7.D:

Three grids for evaluation or self-evaluation within a

comprehensive assessment

— Complementary document 5: The evaluation of learning at collegial level: from course to

program

---

Page 20 of 383

Mediagraphy

CHABOT, André, “Les nouvelles tendances en évaluation des apprentissages ”,

Reflets

, vol. 8, n

o

1,

Cégep de Chicoutimi, December 1997. [http://www2.cgodin.qc.ca/carrefour/lectures.htm

]

D’AMOUR, Cécile,

Principes et règles d’action qui devraient guider l’évaluation des

apprentissages, Session de perfectionnement

, Cégep de l’Abitibi-Témincamingue, 1995.

D’AMOUR, Cécile et Groupe de recherche à Performa,

L’évaluation des apprentissages au

collégial : du cours au programme

,

-

Fascicule I. La problématique, [s. l.], April 1996, 66 p.

-

Fascicule II. Cadre de référence. Première partie : Les questions préalables, 85 p.

-

Fascicule III-IV – section 1. Avenues quant au comment faire. Comment faire l’évaluation

des apprentissages? Comment faire l’animation pédagogique sur ce thème?, January 1997,

multiple pages.

-

Fascicule III-IV – section 2. Avenues quant au comment faire. Comment faire l’évaluation

des apprentissages? Comment faire l’animation pédagogique sur ce thème?, January 1997,

multiple pages.

-

Appendices, [s. l.], January 1997, Table of contents, multiple pages.

[http://www.educ.usherb.ca/performa/documents/fiches/D_Amour_et_al.htm

], Université de

Sherbrooke, Performa.

D’AMOUR, Cécile,

Les pratiques d’évaluation dans le département de chimie en fonction des

compétences, Activité de perfectionnement

, Collège de Bois-de-Boulogne, Performa, 1995.

DESHAIES, Pierre, Hermann GUY et Michel POIRIER,

Recueil intégrateur

- Section 1 : Un cadre de référence sur la formation au collégial

- Section 2 : L’élaboration locale d’un programme d’études

- Section 3 : La planification de l’enseignement centré sur le développement des compétences

- Section 4 : L’évaluation des apprentissages centrés sur le développement de compétences

- Section 5 : Le suivi de l’implantation d’un programme d’études

(appearing soon), regroupement des collèges Performa, Sherbrooke.

DESHAIES, Pierre.

Évaluer de façon formative et sommative

, document produced within the

framework of MIPEC/PED-858/Outils de formation, version 2, Collège Shawinigan,

Fall 2002.

HOUART, Mireille,

Évaluer

des

compétences.

Oui,

mais… comment?.

[http://www.det.fundp.ac.be/~mho/assessment.htm

]

, Département Éducation et Technologie,

Namur, FUNDP.

HOWE, Robert, “Un nouveau paradigme en évaluation des apprentissages”,

Pédagogie collégiale

,

vol. 6, n

o

3, 1993.

HOWE, Robert et Louise MÉNARD, “Croyances et pratiques en évaluation des apprentissages”,

recherche PAREA

, Laval, Collège Montmorency, 1993.

---

Page 21 of 383

HOWE, Robert et Louise MÉNARD, “Croyances et pratiques en évaluation des apprentissages ”,

Pédagogie collégiale

, vol. 7, n

o

3, 1994, p. 21-27.

LAFORTUNE, Louise et Colette DAUDELIN,

Accompagnement socioconstructiviste. Pour

s’approprier une réforme en éducation

, Sainte-Foy, Presses de l’Université du Québec, 2001,

p. 109 et 110.

LALIBERTÉ, Jacques, “D’autres façons de concevoir et de faire l’évaluation des apprentissages ”,

Pédagogie collégiale

, 1995.

LEGENDRE, Marie-Francoise, “Présentation sur le thème des grandes orientations de la réforme ”,

Québec, ministère de l’Éducation du Québec, February 15, 2000.

LEGENDRE, Marie-Francoise, “Favoriser l’émergence de changements en matière d’évaluation des

apprentissages ”,

Vie pédagogique

, n

o

120, September-October 2001, p. 15-19.

LOUIS, Roland,

L’évaluation des apprentissages en classe : Théorie et pratique

, Montréal, Éditions

Études Vivantes, 1999.

MARTEL, Angéline, La transition des instructivismes aux constructivismes par les technologies de la

communication au service de l’enseignement/apprentissage à distance, 2002.

[http://www.refad.ca/constructivisme.html

], Télé-université.

PÔLE DE L’EST, “Pour une analyse détaillée des influences de la psychologie cognitive sur la

planification de l’enseignement et de l’apprentissage ”,

L’enseignement et l’apprentissage :

un cadre conceptuel

, most of Chapter10, 1992, p. 195-221.

PÔLE DE L’EST,

Processus de planification d’un cours centré sur le développement d’une

compétence

, regroupement des collèges Performa, December 1996, p. 9.

SCALLON, Gérard, “Pourquoi évaluer… Quelle question! ”

Vie pédagogique

, n

o

120, September-

October 2001, p. 20-23.

VASSEUR, François et autres, “Journée pédagogique portant sur l’élaboration d’un système

d’évaluation des apprentissages within the framework of the new PIEA ”, La Pocatière,

Cégep de La Pocatière, October 1998.

---

Page 22 of 383

Recommended reading

HOULE, Dominique, Robert HOWE and Louise MÉNARD,

“

Les grilles d’observation pour évaluer

les apprentissages ”,

Pédagogie collégiale,

vol. 11, n

o

4, May 1998, p. 10-15

10

.

JONNAERT, Philippe,

Compétences et socioconstructivisme, un cadre théorique

, Éditions de Boeck,

Bruxelles, 2002, p. 34-40

11

et p. 76-79

12

.

LASNIER, François,

Réussir la formation par compétences

, Guérin, Montréal, 2000, p. 434-437

13

.

LOUIS, Roland,

L’évaluation des apprentissages en classe : Théorie et pratique

, Éditions Études

Vivantes, Montréal, 1999, p. 77-98

14

.

MUNN, Joanne et Pierrette JALBERT,

Les grilles d’observation

, Société GRICS, Fall 2001, 14 p.

15

.

PÔLE DE L’EST,

Processus de planification d’un cours centré sur le développement d’une

compétence,

regroupement des collèges Performa, December 1996, p. 150-177

16

.

WIGGINS, Grant,

Educative Assessment: Designing Assessments to Inform and Improve Student

Performance

, San Francisco, Jossey-Bass

17

.

WIGGINS, Grant,

The case for authentic assessment. Practical Assessment, Research & Assessment,

2

(2), 1999. [

http://ericae.net/pare/getvn.asp? v=2&n=2

]

18

10

Article on developing an observation grid applied to the evaluation of stages in nursing

11

Pay particular attention to section 3 of chapter 2 relating to the concept of competency and new study programs

12

Pay particular attention to the summary of chapter 4 entitled “Comment peut-on aborder le concept de compétence

dans une perspective socioconstructiviste?”

13

Pay particular attention to appendix D recommending various formative evaluation strategies

14

Pay particular attention to chapter 7 on evaluating in authentic cases and the construction of evaluation tasks

15

Text showing the characteristics, strengths and weaknesses in various observation grids with procedures to build and

validate descriptive scale grids.

16

Pay particular attention to chapter 7 on the evaluation of competency

17

A recognized reference relative to the evaluation of learning

18

Text including the definition and characteristics of the authentic evaluation

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Page 23 of 383

Chapter 1

Beliefs and practices in the evaluation of learning

“For several years now, many researchers have put forth theories to explain how evaluation practices

are used in the classroom. These theories tend to show that beliefs and attitudes are among the

principal determinants of evaluation practices and that, in fact, beliefs underlying attitudes are also

behind personal evaluation practices.

If our beliefs have been the basis of our actions and attitudes for a long time, if they have given us

satisfaction and if the results have been able to provide answers to our questions, direct us and

stabilize us … it will be difficult for us to accept to change them.

The more anchored the beliefs, the more a person tends to use cognitive strategies to protect these

beliefs. This is the type of action taken when someone wants his beliefs to survive even if they are

proven false. Therefore, if we want to improve a teacher’s competency relative to the evaluation of

learning, we must take into account his current practices and the way he does things. It is also

necessary to understand the beliefs behind the practices.”

19

Two sensitization activities introduce this topic:

Activity 1.1:

“Evaluation practices” are to some extent, a diagnostic evaluation that allows

participants to express their concepts and perceptions concerning evaluation practices, and then to

validate or invalidate them by comparing them to those of other participants.

Activity 1.2:

“My beliefs concerning the evaluation of learning” allow us to position our beliefs and

practices relative to the evaluation of learning.

As a complement to activity 1.2, the text “Student perceptions and expectations” (complementary

document 1) discusses the way students experience the evaluation of learning, and broaches the

question of the impact the evaluation of learning is likely to have on the student’s life:

— within the academic framework (their vision of the academic institution, evaluations and

study behaviours);

—

within the framework of academic and professional orientation (their aspirations, studies

and career path); and

— relative to their expectations of evaluations, which in turn tells us something about their

conceptions.

Lastly, learning tool 1.D documents the results of research on the “Beliefs and practices in the

evaluation of learning” and is instrumental in clarifying the beliefs behind our practices.

19

Translated from Robert Howe and Louise Ménard, “Croyances et pratiques en évaluation des apprentissages”,

Pédagogie collégiale

, vol. 7, n

o

3, March 1994, p. 21-27.

---

Page 24 of 383

Chapter synopsis:

Activity 1:

Beliefs and practices in the evaluation of learning

Activity 1.1:

Evaluation practices

Activity 1.2:

My beliefs concerning the evaluation of learning

Learning tools:

Learning tool 1.A:

Evaluation practices

Learning tool 1.B:

The evaluation of learning based on the new paradigm

Learning tool 1.C:

Self-evaluation of beliefs relative the evaluation of learning

Learning tool 1.D:

“Beliefs and practices in the evaluation of learning”

Complementary documents:

Complementary document 1:

Student perceptions and expectations

Reference:

Results of research on “Beliefs and practices in the

evaluation of learning”

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Page 25 of 383

Activity 1.1

Heading

Evaluation practices

Objective

To identify prior knowledge concerning evaluation practices.

To express concepts and identify evaluation practices used by colleagues.

Description

This activity is to some extent a diagnostic evaluation that allows participants

to express their concepts and perceptions relative to evaluation practices and

then to validate or invalidate them by comparing them to those of other

participants.

Unfolding

A. Each participant completes a questionnaire on his own (Learning tool

1.A). Approximately twenty minutes.

B. The resource person compiles the answers to question IV in order to get a

global picture.

C. Team discussions if number of participants permits; if not, group

discussions for all questions. For each question, the resource person may

present the table of compiled answers.

D. Presents an overview of general evaluation practices.

E. The resource person introduces the ‘new’ characteristics in the evaluation

of learning by distributing learning tool 1.B to each participant.

Moderator’s role

To create a climate favourable for reflection.

To encourage participants to ask questions.

To accept answers without judgment.

To support the interaction of all participants.

To frequently summarize what has been said, this allows individuals to recall

and identify their concepts and practices more readily.

Participants’ role

To openly express their concepts.

To interact with other participants.

To examine past experience to identify the concepts behind their evaluation

practices.

To make a personal diagnosis on their evaluation practices.

material

Learning tool 1.A:

Evaluation practices

Learning tool 1.B:

The evaluation of learning based on the new paradigm

Learning tool 1.C:

Self-evaluation of beliefs relative the evaluation of

learning

Learning tool 1.D:

“Beliefs and practices in the evaluation of learning”

document

Complementary document 1: Student perceptions and expectations.

duration

3 hours

---

Page 26 of 383

Heading

My beliefs concerning the evaluation of learning

Objective

To identify personal beliefs relative to the evaluation of learning practices.

Description

Beliefs and attitudes are among the principal determinants of evaluation

practices; in fact, beliefs determine attitudes and from these, practices are

born.

This activity intends primarily to identify beliefs and to validate them through

exchanges with colleagues and within the framework of the new evaluation

paradigm.

Unfolding

A. Each participant completes a questionnaire “Self-evaluation of beliefs in

the evaluation of learning” (Learning tool 1.C). It is preferable to have the

questionnaire completed prior to the initial activity. This makes it possible

to produce a summary of answers.

B. Summary and pooling of evaluation practices category by category.

C. Beliefs are validated initially during peer interaction. Finally, personal

results are compared to the research results found in learning tool 1.D.

D. At the end of the session, participants are led to assess their perceptions

and attitudes in light of their personal beliefs.

Moderator’s role

To create a climate favourable for reflection.

To encourage participants to ask questions.

To accept answers without judgment.

Participants’ role

To express their beliefs openly.

To interact with other participants.

To identify what their personal practices reveal about their beliefs.

material

Learning tool 1.C: Self-evaluation of beliefs relative to the evaluation of

learning

Learning tool 1.D: Results of research on “Beliefs and practices in the

evaluation of learning”

document

Complementary document 1: Student perceptions and expectations.

Although the following article is not included in the learning kit, it discusses

the results of research and can be beneficial for readers: Robert Howe and

Louise Ménard, “Croyances et pratiques en évaluation des apprentissages”,

Pédagogie collégiale

, vol. 7, n

o

3, March 1994, p. 21-27.

duration

3 hours

---

Page 27 of 383

Learning tool 1. A

Evaluation practices

20

A few clues on where to start

Responses should be spontaneous. As the title suggests the goal is to collect data that will help

position ourselves relative to various questions on evaluation practices and to validate our reflections

with colleagues.

I. Are you completely satisfied with the way in which you evaluate learning in your courses?

____________

If you are dissatisfied, indicate the kind of dissatisfaction you are experiencing and its cause.

II. Is it your impression that the evaluation of learning is done in an equivalent manner by different

professors who teach the same course? ________

On what do you base this belief?

III. Does the evaluation of learning in a course geared towards competency development imply

major changes in evaluation practices? _________

What are the similarities and the differences? Name some new practices.

20

Translated from Cécile D’Amour,

Les pratiques d’évaluation dans le département de chimie en fonction des

compétences

, Activité de perfectionnement, Collège de Bois-de-Boulogne, May 1995.

---

Page 28 of 383

IV. Indicate your level of agreement with each of the following statements by placing a checkmark

in the appropriate box. Make notes on your comments for the group discussion.

Statements

disagree

to be

discussed

agree

completely

1.

The evaluation of learning is a process that must be transparent,

precise and hold no surprises.

2.

The evaluation of learning must relate only to objectives that are

explicitly defined and respected.

3.

Student evaluation results in a classroom, should follow the

normal curve.

4.

Within our courses, some learning can be so important that non-

mastery of that subject matter leads to automatic failure.

5.

Student attendance should not have an effect on the grade given

for any evaluation or for the entire course.

6.

The objectives and evaluation requirements should be identical

for all class groups for a given course, and evaluation methods

should be equivalent.

7.

Every course should end with a final exam to verify that

essential learning has been mastered.

8.

Passing the final exam should be a prerequisite for successful

completion of the course.

9.

The final grade assigned must reflect as accurately as possible

the level of mastery of learning

at end of course, and must mean

the same thing for all students.

10. Activities relative to formative evaluations are of key

importance.

11. There should be very few summative evaluations.

These

evaluations must apply to the course in its entirety

or to complete

course segments.

12. When an evaluation has been administered to a group of

students, the teacher must take the necessary means to evaluate

the performance of each individual student; he cannot attribute

an identical grade to all based on the quality of a collective

production.

13. The requirements of the evaluation should be adjusted from one

class to another, based on group ability.

14. The final grade assigned to a student who has completed the

course cannot simply be the sum of grades assigned for various

exams throughout the course; the professor is the one who must

decide the student’s final grade.

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Page 29 of 383

V. The purpose of this question is to establish the degree of familiarity with terminology currently

used in the evaluation of learning.

Working with the following table, identify all the components of the second column that relate to each of

those in the first column:

1: _____________________________________________

2: _____________________________________________

3: _____________________________________________

1. The diagnostic evaluation …

2. The formative evaluation …

3. The summative evaluation …

A.

Assesses the degree of achievement of learning at the end of

the process.

B.

Is used to identify adjustments required in the learning or

teaching process.

C.

Should be frequent.

D.

Belongs at the end of a course or after a pivotal or complete

section.

E.

Is particularly important at the start of the course.

F.

Is used to justify advancement, equivalency and certification.

G.

Should be integrated into teaching and learning processes.

H.

Helps to adjust the course to students’ level of acquisitions

upon entry.

VI. In the table below, associate a component in the first column to one of the components in the

second column:

1: ____________________________

2: ____________________________

The evaluation is said to be

1. criteria-based when …

2. normative when…

… established by comparing a student’s level of learning at a given

time with

a.

a prior level of learning

b. other students’ level of learning

c.

a pre-established threshold of success

VII. What is the best method for evaluating the level of mastery of a competency?

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Page 30 of 383

Learning tool 1.B

The evaluation of learning based on the new paradigm

21

The evaluation of learning at collegial level is now driven by the new paradigm. It must be carried out

with professionalism and within a program perspective.

The evaluation of learning based on the new paradigm

We are recommending that the evaluation of learning be re-examined within the perspective of the

new paradigm, because it seems to adequately resolve the problem elements we have identified:

— the “professionalization” of the teacher’s role;

— the changing nature of learning objectives;

— increased requirements relative to the quality and validity of the evaluation of learning;

— emerging postulates of the new epistemology, psychology of learning and education

sciences; etc.

We will constantly refer to traces of these four perspectives that characterize the new paradigm.

The evaluation we propose has the following characteristics:

1. An evaluation adapted to a competency-based approach

, relating therefore to complex

multidimensional, integrated and transferable learning that from

a methodological perspective,

implies an evaluation that is:

—

global, multidimensional,

—

contextualized,

—

a true opportunity for students to demonstrate their competency, while ensuring

standardization of the conditions for success and evaluation criteria.

2. An evaluation that truly serves the purpose of learning

, an evaluation integrated into teaching

and learning processes: to guide, support, assist students in assuming responsibility for their

learning and, finally, determine what learning has been acquired;

from a methodological perspective,

it implies an evaluation that:

—

is dynamic rather than static, combines snapshots of specific moments to create a portrait of

the learning taking place, focuses not only on the results but also on the process used to

achieve them;

—

is conducted within a didactic framework and not exclusively docimological;

—

is used not only to create benchmarks or make a judgment but also for diagnostic purposes;

—

is readily adapted to the pursuit of learning;

—

takes into account

not only the cognitive but also the affective dimension;

—

uses a diversity of evaluation methods (teacher who guides the learning, other teachers,

students, evaluators outside the academic environment);

21

Translated from Cécile D’Amour and Groupe de travail à Performa, L’évaluation des apprentissages au collégial from

the program course, Fascicule II. Cadre de référence. Première partie: Les questions préalables, First edition [s. l.],

April 1996, p. 15-18.

---

Page 31 of 383

—

does not make a final judgment on the acquired learning until the end of the learning

period;

3. An evaluation based on criteria

where judgment is based on the achievement of learning

objectives rather than the classification of students in relation to others (normative evaluation).

from a methodological perspective,

it implies an evaluation that:

—

is focused on validity rather than discrimination;

—

uses qualitative approaches and descriptive methods;

4. A forward-thinking methodology

that upgrades the role of professional judgment and

recognizes student responsibility, a methodology that is adapted and thorough:

adapted

—

to the first three characteristics identified;

—

to the purpose of the evaluation in question: supports the learning process or learning

certificate;

thorough, which implies

—

that judgment can assume its rightful role;

—

that the methods and learning tools (scales, calculations, etc.) are employed under their

appropriate conditions of use.

An evaluation of learning carried out in a professional manner

Like other components of teaching, the evaluation of learning must be carried out in a professional

manner, that is to say, seriously and in good faith. It must also be done responsibly,

relying on a

specific competency

in the field (one that is acquired or to be acquired, maintained and developed),

using existing margins of flexibility

to ensure the most appropriate methods are used for each

individual learning situation, ensuring a continued evolution of evaluation practices,

respecting

ethical principles, agreeing to accountability

for our actions. With regard to the evaluation of

learning, assuming full responsibility means accepting to

make an evaluation judgment

: we believe

this is one of the major issues at stake in changing current practices.

An evaluation of learning carried out within a program perspective

To increase the odds of students completing their study program with the desired “profile”, the

evaluation of learning like other

interventions

, must be conceived and carried out within a program

perspective.

What exactly does this mean?

— The methods of evaluation for all courses should be

coherent and articulate

to motivate

students to concentrate their efforts on learning and help them integrate this learning

rather than compartmentalize it.

— Within the framework of each individual course, evaluation activities should

support

learning

so that the course effectively contributes what it is supposed to contribute to the

training and to ensure that the learning acquired cumulatively throughout the courses is

integrated as effectively as possible.

— The results of the summative evaluation carried out in each course should

accurately

reflect the level of learning mastered

by each student, so that in subsequent courses, we

can count on a certain basis of acquired knowledge.

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Page 32 of 383

— In planning for the evaluation of learning — as in the planning of learning interventions –

objectives that require the contribution of several courses should be given

particular

attention

: formative and summative evaluations should be designed to encompass all the

courses to assist in reaching these objectives and their final certification.

— Furthermore, evaluation methods should be based on

the students’ level of

development

, keeping in mind that this level will increase as students advance in the

program; evaluations must maximize the development of

self-evaluation and

metacognitive skills

.

In summary, overall evaluation interventions should contribute to the integration of learning

throughout the program.

The comprehensive evaluation at the end of the program, could then officially attest to the degree of

mastery and level of integration of essential learning for each student at the end of the learning

process.

For discussion purposes, use the chart on the next page.

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Page 33 of 383

Chart

Perspectives for change

Statements with which you agree; that represent a particular

difficulty for you; or that lead you to question your practices

— An evaluation adapted

to a competency-based

approach

— An evaluation that truly

serves the purpose of

learning

— A criteria-based

evaluation

— A forward-thinking

methodology that

upgrades the role of

professional judgment

and recognizes student

accountability

— An evaluation carried

out in a professional

manner

— An evaluation carried

out within a program

perspective

---

Page 34 of 383

Learning tool 1.C

Self-evaluation of beliefs relative to the evaluation of learning

22

Beliefs, as described in the text of Howe and Ménard (1993), have a determining influence on

attitudes and behaviours. It is essential to make our beliefs explicit if we wish to modify and improve

our evaluation of learning practices. The exercise below

23

is intended to highlight some of these

beliefs and therefore allow us to measure them against the new paradigm in the evaluation of learning.

Compare your answers with the results obtained by Howe and Ménard in their research among college

professors. Please refer to learning tool 1.D. The classification categories correspond to the six fields

of competency evaluations described by Stiggins (1991)

24

. The authors comment on the choices they

made subsequent to their research:

“Within the framework of research in progress, Louise Ménard and I had to find a system that

permitted a classification by categories of many statements regarding beliefs and practices in the field

of learning assessment in the classroom. Documentation on the subject revealed several

categorizations that are adaptable to the evaluation of beliefs and practices. We chose four approaches

(Fontaine, 1988; Stiggins, 1991; American Federation of Teachers, 1990 and Schafer, 1991) and

studied them, our goal being to adopt one of these systems.

We finally chose the typology of competency fields recommended by Stiggins (1991) because, with

six key components, it enables us to answer the three primary questions of our research. They are: the

“why”,” what” and “how” of assessment in the classroom. The categories identified by Stiggins within

a competency-based evaluation of learning, appear not only pertinent to the goal of our research but

also in the description of knowledge, skills and attitudes that teachers should develop in the field of

measurement and assessment in the classroom. In my opinion, these six fields of competency

represent a valid structure to analyze assessment practices of teachers in the classroom and to guide

the planning of improvement activities.”

The typology (on the following page) is presented because of its value and usefulness in research and

in teacher education. A detailed description of these categories can be found in the above-mentioned

research.

22

Translated from Robert Howe and Louise Ménard,

Croyances et pratiques en évaluation des apprentissages,

PAREA

research, Laval, Collège Montmorency, 404, 1993.

23

Translated from an activity designed by Germain Perreault, Collège de la Région de l’Amiante and Hélène Servais,

Cégep Limoilou.

24

R. J. Stiggins, “Relevant classroom evaluation training for teachers”,

Educational Measurement: Issues and Practice

,

vol. 10, n

o

1, March 1991, p. 7-12.

For each statement, indicate your level of agreement or disagreement:

AC

Agree completely

A

Agree

D

Disagree

DC

Disagree completely

NC

No comment

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Page 35 of 383

The categories identified by Stiggins

In “Relevant Classroom Assessment Training for Teachers”, Stiggins (1991) suggests a

description of the competency domains for teachers relative to the measurement and

evaluation of learning in the classroom. These domains form an excellent structure consisting

of six categories that facilitate the analysis of practices and beliefs in assessment and also

guide the planning of improvement activities.

The use of assessment in the classroom

Based on Stiggins’ observations, teachers use evaluation of learning to respond to three

needs: a) to support decisions, b) to guide teaching and learning, c) to manage the classroom.

To use the evaluation of learning competently within the framework of these separate needs,

teachers must be assessment-literate and understand the role of assessment as well as its

educational and pedagogical impact on teaching and learning.

—

Assessment objectives

Stiggins’ second category deals with the specific areas targeted by assessments. The areas

generally evaluated by teachers are: knowledge of subject matter, skills, higher cognitive

skills and attitudes. The teacher must clearly understand what he seeks to assess and use

appropriate assessment methods.

—

Assessment qualities

The characteristics of a sound assessment vary according to the context. However, some

quality standards are common to all assessment situations: the connection between the field to

be evaluated and the measurement tool used; control over margins of error in measurement;

the reconciliation between targeted learning and assessment results; information with

meaning that is clear to both students and teachers.

—

Assessment tools

According to Stiggins, teachers use at least three types of assessment tools in the classroom:

learning tools like "paper and pencil”, observation and verbal exchanges.

All these assessment tools can be used correctly or incorrectly. Each method has distinct

advantages and disadvantages and can be more or less appropriate for a particular context.

Teachers must know how to make assessments while recognizing that the rules of validity

may vary from one assessment to another.

—

The interpersonal dimension of assessments

A classroom assessment implies highly complex interpersonal exchanges. The assessment is

rarely scientific, objective and detached in this type of environment. On the contrary, it is

linked to all kinds of variables (motivation, concepts of teaching and learning, emotional

aspect of the assessment, etc.) that come into play before, during, and after the actual

assessment.

—

Feedback in the classroom

Teachers provide feedback on assessment results on a continuous basis. According to

Stiggins, teachers must assign grades that are pertinent so that the feedback is without

ambiguity. It is also important that all aspects of the feedback correspond specifically to the

objectives, be given in a timely manner and be meaningful for the student.

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Page 36 of 383

AC

A

D

DC

NC

1.

The best way to motivate students is to assign grades to

their work.

2.

Being evaluated motivates students to devote more

energy to their studies.

3.

Evaluations must be frequent to help students identify

weaknesses quickly.

4.

Evaluations are used to identify student strengths and

weaknesses relative to the learning to be acquired.

5.

Evaluations must be used to classify students relative

to each other rather than identify learning they have

acquired.

6.

If I could, I would never give examinations.

7.

A grade should not be assigned in a formative

examination.

8.

Evaluation is an integral part of instruction.

9.

Evaluations must be frequent so that student’s work is

consistent.

10.

Evaluation practices at collegial level often favour

short-term versus long-term learning.

11.

Evaluations are not learning activities.

12.

I evaluate the academic output of my students to meet

college administrative requirements.

13.

All work done by the student in and outside of the

classroom deserves to be evaluated and graded.

Comments

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Page 37 of 383

AC

A

D

DC

NC

1.

It is practically impossible to get evaluation results

that accurately reflect student learning.

In determining the final grade, it is important to evaluate each of the following items

(questions 2 to 6):

2.

Attitudes (personal conduct)

3.

Skills, procedures

4.

Knowledge (learning)

5.

Critical thinking

6.

Skills in analysis, synthesis and problem solving

7.

To evaluate is to give an examination on everything

said and done in the classroom.

8.

It is not fair to ask questions beyond the subject

matter taught.

9.

It is not necessary for the evaluation to cover all

aspects of the subject matter.

10.

It is impossible at collegial level to evaluate both

student understanding and knowledge of the subject

matter.

11.

It is more important to evaluate the understanding of

the subject matter than knowledge of the facts.

12.

At collegial level, the higher cognitive skills

(analysis, synthesis, problem solving) are the areas

that should be evaluated.

Comments

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Page 38 of 383

AC

A

D

DC

NC

1.

After an examination, it is useful to analyze my

questions to gauge their value.

2.

It is advisable to have examination questions checked

by a second specialist in the subject matter.

3.

All students should be evaluated using the same criteria.

4.

It is practically impossible to achieve evaluation results

that accurately reflect student learning.

5.

It is necessary to evaluate frequently to obtain reliable

results.

6.

My examinations are effective and tell me what I want

to know.

7.

When I evaluate my course achievement objectives, I

am on solid ground.

8.

It is sometimes necessary to modify the evaluation

criteria during grading.

9.

It is necessary to establish evaluation criteria before the

start of grading.

10.

It is impossible to establish evaluation criteria before

the start of grading.

Different criteria should be used for different groups of students:

11.

The more gifted should work harder to earn a higher

grade.

12.

We should be less demanding of the less gifted so that

they may achieve higher grades.

13.

The students who focus all their skills and aptitudes

should receive higher grades than those who do not.

Comments

---

Page 39 of 383

AC

A

D

DC

NC

1.

Only questions requiring development can measure

essential learning.

2.

All examinations should allow open textbooks.

3.

All evaluations should be self-evaluations.

4.

Multiple-choice questions favour the evaluation of

memorized knowledge.

5.

Assessment exams at end of session should be

obligatory in almost all disciplines.

6.

Multiple-choice

questions

can

measure

the

understanding of the subject matter.

7.

It is almost impossible to write examination

questions that measure higher cognitive skills.

8.

Only research work or the realization of a project

can truly measure the level of achievement of course

objectives.

9.

Examinations with multiple choice questions

measure essential learning better than questions

requiring development.

Comments

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Page 40 of 383

AC

A

D

DC

NC

It is important to not raise or lower a student’s

grade as a means of encouragement or to

motivate him to work harder.

The final report card grade could be increased as a reward for:

1.

the student’s active participation in the

classroom.

2.

the effort put forth.

3.

student progress throughout the entire session

(evolution).

4.

student creativity.

5.

student attendance at all courses.

6.

When grading questions requiring development,

knowing respondent’s identity can influence me.

The final report card grade could be lowered as a penalty for:

7.

non-justified absences.

8.

absence or lack of effort on student’s part.

9.

lack of discipline in class.

10.

plagiarism.

Comments

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Page 41 of 383

AC

A

D

DC

NC

1.

Professors should provide written comments on

students work.

2.

The majority of students read the comments

written by their professors.

3.

The average class grade is a direct reflection on the

quality of the instruction.

4.

In a group, the distribution of the grades should

follow the normal Bell curve: only a few students

should have very high or very low grades.

5.

At my college, the criteria for success or failure are

generally: (choose one)

a. much too lenient, generous

b. too demanding

c. adequate

6.

Grading is a handicap to instruction.

7.

Some professors evaluate and assign grades

because they have to and consequently, do so

quickly to get it over with.

8.

The grades I assign are not really indicative of

what my students have learned.

9.

When grading, the good or bad results obtained by

the student in evaluations at the beginning of the

instruction must be taken into account.

10.

It is necessary to avoid performing evaluations that

involve the teacher’s personal judgment and

subjectivity.

11.

Grades should reflect the number or percentage of

objectives achieved by my students.

Comments

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Page 42 of 383

Learning tool 1.D

“Beliefs and practices in the evaluation of learning”

25

Summary table of research results

26

The evaluation of learning is an integral part of what teachers do. It is of key importance in improving

the quality of learning (and teaching) during training and in validating the quality of learning at the

end of training.

Professors at collegial level have always been responsible for the evaluation of learning. This

responsibility is a visible and credible demonstration of the professional competency of professors,

and this competency, far from being definitively acquired and static, must be the object of pertinent

and regular updates.

The research of Howe and Ménard (1994) highlighted inadequate practices as well as erroneous

thinking regarding the evaluation of learning. Certain methods are suggested and their

implementation should rest on an understanding of beliefs and practices. For this purpose, the

questionnaire can be used locally as a research tool to identify the practices and beliefs of all

professors at a college or within a department. The authors list a number of main objectives for

training and/or improvement activities:

—

to better grasp concepts, in particular the concept of formative evaluation;

—

to support the greater use of formative evaluations;

—

to question the use of evaluations as a means of managing a class and the validity of

grade adjustments;

—

to better understand the various tools than can be used to evaluate learning;

—

to develop validation practices and improvement activities for evaluation tools.

The authors conclude: “the evaluation of learning is not the answer to everything; but several authors

have shown the tremendous influence that evaluation practices and beliefs have on all aspects of

teaching and learning” (Stiggins, 1992; Crooks, 1988). Any intervention that improves the ability to

evaluate will lead to better quality instruction and learning.

The following table documents a summary of Howe and Ménard’s research and gives us the

distribution of teachers’ answers relative to their beliefs on the evaluation of learning.

25

Translated from Robert Howe and Louise Ménard, “Croyances et pratiques en évaluation des apprentissages”,

Pédagogie collégiale

, vol. 7, n

o

3, March 1994, p. 21-27.x

26

For a presentation of research results, please refer to: Robert Howe and Louise Ménard,

Croyances et pratiques en

évaluation des apprentissages,

recherche PAREA, Laval, Collège Montmorency, 1993, 404 p.

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Page 43 de 383

Summary distribution of answers given by teachers regarding their beliefs on the

evaluation of learning

Table 1: Distribution of responses to statements on beliefs relative to:

AC

A

D

DC

NC

To guide decisions

1.

The evaluation is used to identify student

strengths and weaknesses.

43 % 52 %

4 %

0 %

1 %

2.

Following the evaluation, the teachers

should be been willing to readjust course

contents.

32 % 44 % 15 %

4 %

4 %

3.

If I could, I would not evaluate.

7 %

7 % 38 % 45 %

3 %

4.

The evaluation is mainly used to satisfy

administrative requirements.

2 %

7 % 53 % 35 %

3 %

To assist learning

5.

The evaluation is used to validate what the

students learned.

34 % 61 %

3 %

1 %

0 %

6.

The evaluation can help students learn.

35 % 60 %

3 %

0 %

2 %

7.

It is not necessary to use formative

evaluations.

1 %

3 % 40 % 51 %

5 %

8.

Formative evaluations are mini evaluations

that are used to prepare for the summative

evaluation.

7 % 43 % 31 % 13 %

6 %

To manage the classroom

9.

The best way to make students work is to

assign grades to their work.

17 % 61 % 17 %

3 %

2 %

10.

Evaluations encourage students to put more

effort into their studies.

33 % 61 %

5 %

0 %

1 %

11.

Students work more consistently when

evaluations are frequent.

29 % 58 %

8 %

1 %

4 %

Note

―

Percentages are based on frequency tables after weighting. N min. = 616; N max. = 628.

---

Page 44 de 383

Table 2: Distribution of responses to statements on beliefs relative to:

AC

A

D

DC

NC

Course subject matter

1.

Examination questions should not go beyond

the subject matter taught.

19 %

39 %

33 %

5 %

5 %

2.

It is not practical to have the evaluation cover

all the subject matter taught.

7 %

50 %

28 %

10 %

4 %

3.

The examination should cover everything that is

taught in the classroom.

8 %

27 %

50 %

12 %

3 %

Skills

4.

It is more important to evaluate understanding

than knowledge.

19 %

49 %

20 %

4 %

7 %

5.

It is impossible to evaluate anything other than

knowledge.

2 %

8 %

55 %

32 %

4 %

6.

It is practically impossible to evaluate attitudes.

5 %

19 %

46 %

18 %

13 %

7.

We should be evaluating higher cognitive skills.

9 %

41 %

40 %

4 %

7 %

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Page 45 de 383

Table 3: Distribution of responses to statements on beliefs relative to:

AC

A

D

DC

NC

Validation of the components

1.

It is useful to analyze examination questions.

35 %

56 %

4 %

1 %

3 %

2.

A second specialist should check examination

questions.

14 %

58 %

15 %

2 %

11 %

3.

Instructions for written work are clearer if a

second specialist verifies them.

17%

64 %

11 %

1 %

7 %

Evaluation criteria

4.

Everyone should be evaluated using the same

criteria.

47 %

45 %

5 %

1 %

2 %

5.

It is necessary to establish the criteria before

beginning the grading.

47 %

48 %

4 %

-

1 %

Representation

6.

It is impossible for evaluation results to

accurately reflect student learning.

4 %

25 %

50 %

16 %

5 %

7.

Several evaluations are required to obtain reliable

results.

32 %

62 %

5 %

-

1 %

8.

My evaluation methods are reliable.

13 %

79 %

4 %

-

4 %

9.

The grades should reflect the objectives that have

been mastered.

22 %

62 %

8 %

1 %

7 %

Consistency

10.

Many teachers lack consistency in evaluations.

11 %

30 %

20 %

2 %

38 %

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Page 46 de 383

Table 4: Distribution of responses to statements on beliefs relative to:

AC

A

D

DC

NC

1.

Questions requiring development can only measure

higher learning.

12 % 32 % 41 %

7 %

8 %

2.

Multiple-choice questions can measure higher

learning.

3 % 38 % 32 % 15 % 11 %

3.

Multiple-choice

questions

mainly

measure

knowledge.

6 % 35 % 42 %

8 %

9 %

4.

Multiple-choice questions too often lead to random

answers.

8 % 35 % 33 %

2 % 21 %

5.

Examinations should allow open textbooks.

4 % 14 % 55 % 12 % 15 %

6.

Assessment examinations should be obligatory in

all disciplines.

13 % 38 % 29 %

5 % 15 %

7.

Written work and projects are the best evaluations.

6 % 31 % 44 %

5 % 13 %

Evaluations should generally be self-evaluations that are:

8.

Formative

4 % 24 % 48 % 13 % 10 %

9.

Summative

0 %

5 % 53 % 35 %

6 %

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Page 47 de 383

Table 5: Distribution of responses to statements on beliefs relative to:

Category 5:

AC

A

D

DC

NC

1.

The hardest working students deserve the highest

grades.

16 %

36 %

39 %

4 %

5 %

2.

Poor results lead to de-motivation.

9 %

61 %

23 %

1 %

5 %

3.

A grade should not be increased to encourage the

student to work harder.

15 %

55 %

21 %

3 %

6 %

4.

In grading work, we are influenced by the

identity of the respondent.

4 %

40 %

35 %

9 %

12 %

5.

Teaching concepts influence the evaluation.

26 %

57 %

8 %

1 %

7 %

Table 6: Distribution of the responses to the statements of beliefs relative to:

AC

A

D

DC

NC

Feedback

1.

Professors should provide written comments on

students’ work.

33 %

57 %

4 %

1 %

5 %

2.

The majority of students read the comments

written by their professors.

25 %

60 %

6 %

1 %

9 %

Grading

3.

The class average is a reflection of the quality of

teaching.

1 %

17 %

62 %

14 %

6 %

4.

It is necessary to avoid evaluations that are

subjective.

18 %

44 %

25 %

4 %

8 %

5.

Professors sometimes assign passing grades that

are not deserved.

4 %

28 %

23 %

4%

41 %

6.

Grades should follow the normal curve.

2 %

38 %

39 %

12 %

10 %

7.

Formative evaluations should not be taken into

account on the report card.

16 %

35 %

32 %

7 %

10 %

8.

Grading hinders teaching.

2 %

9 %

57 %

24 %

8 %

9.

The grade is the student’s salary.

9 %

46 %

26 %

9 %

10 %

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Page 48 de 383

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Page 49 de 383

Chapter 2

evaluations

General presentation

Important changes are taking place and impacting the pedagogical foundations of education and

particularly the evaluation of learning.

“The concept of learning that gave rise to various reforms in Québec points to a “paradigm

rupture” (Tardif, 1998) through the transition from a teaching paradigm to a learning paradigm.

What does this mean? It does not mean that teaching now becomes a secondary function and that

the focus is now exclusively on learning; rather, it is a different way of viewing the relationship

between learning, teaching and evaluation. These are no longer seen as independent entities but as

a dynamic interrelationship within the educational framework of activities used by the teacher.”

27

“We notice major changes in perspectives in current teaching literature relative to the evaluation

of learning. This new perspective finds echo here, in particular when dealing with the authentic

evaluation and competency assessment.”

The following authors emphasize the important changes linked to the new paradigm.

Robert Howe affirms:

“The evaluation per se, is a topic seen more and more frequently in writings on education. We

question evaluation practices used in our classrooms and see an opportunity to evaluate the

various aspects of our school system. For many of us, this type of thinking arouses some concern:

we know that change is in the air and that this change is impossible to circumvent. We suspect it

involves the way in which we evaluate learning. We also know that we will be personally

challenged sooner or later, because our beliefs are at the core of the issue. Many fear these

changes, others await them eagerly. This difference in attitude relative to current trends in

evaluation is a natural occurrence in major transitional states. We are living a great change of

paradigm in evaluation and change brings a certain amount of confusion in its wake, as it always

does.”

28

Marie-Françoise Legendre adds:

“Evaluations bring out many fears: fear of not being objective, of losing control, of lowering the

standards. No one remains untouched! For some, evaluation promises the achievement of

learning objectives and provides a solid foundation for determining student success or failure,

using pre-established criteria. For others, it is a support function that assists learning to ensure

educational success for the greatest number of students. Some want to avoid the danger of

lowering performance levels. Others find it necessary to reconsider the role of evaluations in the

global context of learning activities and instruction that is based on competency development.

[…]

The transition from programs based on objectives to programs centered on competency

development points to a paradigm shift that has serious repercussions on the way we view

evaluations, their role in learning, the culture in which they originate and new requirements

relative to accountability and methods used. We will initially specify exactly what this

“paradigm shift” is and its implications on the evaluation of learning. We will then tackle the

27

Translated from Marie-Françoise Legendre, “Favoriser l’émergence de changements en matière d’évaluation des

apprentissages”,

Vie pédagogique

, n

o

120, September-October 2001, p. 15-19.

28

Translated from Robert Howe, “Un nouveau paradigme en évaluation des apprentissages”,

Pédagogie collégiale

,

vol. 6, n

o

3, March 1993.

---

Page 50 de 383

central question of evaluation in a competency-based program. Lastly, we will see that the

function of evaluation must fall under a shared accountability that grants the central role to

professional judgment but also makes room for other involved participants.”

29

In referring to our neighbours to the south, Jacques Laliberté stated in 1995:

“In the United States, inherent limitations in the widespread use of standardized tests led

specialists and educators to seek other ways of evaluating student learning. Other factors include

the ever-increasing influence of cognitivist and constructivist theories of learning and the

influence resulting from a competency-based education or on a larger scale, outcome-based

education. All the above have profoundly affected the concept and implementation of the

evaluation of learning for our American neighbours.”

30

At the end of her research for Performa, Cécile D’Amour (1996) concludes:

“The new perspective is so different from the one which currently prevails that it is referred to as

a new paradigm, a new frame of reference i.e., a set of concepts, hypotheses, principles and

behaviours adopted by a community of researchers or interveners that guide research and activity

in the field.

At a time when many at the collegial level are raising questions on the evaluation of learning, this

new paradigm can undoubtedly help move things along. It can be a frame of reference for

teachers who wish to reflect on their evaluation practices and on the beliefs and values that

underscore them. It can be a promising path for teachers who seek to get out of the rut of

managing grades and who want to make evaluations an educational activity. It can also be a

source of inspiration for new evaluation of learning methods currently being implemented in

colleges, so they do not become mere administrative tools but rather ways to improve the quality

of teaching and learning.”

31

To fully grasp the nature of these changes, this chapter documents the transition from a teaching

paradigm to a learning paradigm as well as the characteristics of an evaluation of learning based

on the new paradigm.

29

Translated from Marie-France Legendre, “Favoriser l’émergence de changements en matière d’évaluation des

apprentissages”, Vie pédagogique, no 120, 2001.

30

Translated from Jacques Laliberté, “D’autres façons de concevoir et de faire l’évaluation des apprentissages”,

Pédagogie collégiale

, March 1995.

31

Translated from Cécile D’Amour et Groupe de travail à Performa, “Une évaluation des apprentissages marquée

par le nouveau paradigme”,

L’évaluation des apprentissages au collégial : du cours au programme

, Fascicule II.

Cadre de référence. Première partie : Les questions préalables, première édition, [s. l.], April 1996, p. 15-18.

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Page 51 de 383

Chapter synopsis:

Activity 2:

Learning tools:

Learning tool 2.A:

From a teaching paradigm to a learning paradigm

Learning tool 2.B:

Summary of the characteristics of the two paradigms

Learning tool 2.C:

Statements to be discussed

Learning tool 2.D:

Summary of the characteristics of learning evaluations

based on the new paradigm

Documents:

Document 2.A:

A new paradigm in the evaluation of learning

Document 2.B:

“To support the emergence of change in the evaluation

of learning”

Document 2.C:

“To bring changes to the evaluation of learning”

Complementary document:

Complementary document 2: “Alternate ways of designing and evaluating learning”

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Page 52 de 383

Activity 2

Characteristics of the evaluation of learning

based on the new paradigm

Heading

Characteristics of the evaluation of learning based on the new paradigm

Objectives

To identify the characteristics of the teaching paradigm and the learning

paradigm.

To recognize the characteristics of the evaluation of learning based on the new

paradigm.

To evaluate the impact on evaluation practices.

Description

This activity describes the paradigm shift and its implication in the evaluation

of learning.

The task involves examining the new perspective, by identifying its

dimensions and factors of change, by reading descriptions in the literature and

by identifying the characteristics of a learning evaluation that uses this

perspective as its starting point.

The new perspective has a major impact on the way we conceive and

implement learning evaluations. It also represents an opportunity to measure

the impact on evaluation practices.

Unfolding

A. Each individual reviews:

— the first two pages of learning tool 2.A: “From a teaching paradigm to

a learning paradigm”;

— the summary tables of learning tool 2.B.

B. Group discussions to validate participants’ understanding, using learning

tool 2.C.

C. Beginning with the summary of characteristics for an evaluation of

learning based on the new paradigm:

— to validate understanding, compare characteristics using learning tool

2.D: “Summary of the characteristics of the evaluation of learning

based on the new paradigm”;

— to identify what is new and what is similar to current practices.

D. To evaluate the impact on personal evaluation practices (reference

document: Document 2.C).

E. Perform a final assessment so each individual can draw a portrait of his

own evaluation practices while taking into account the new perspective

resulting from the change in paradigm.

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Page 53 de 383

Moderator’s role

To create a climate favourable to peer interaction.

To present frequent summaries so participants can validate their

understanding.

Participants’ role

To perform required reading.

To openly express personal concepts and perceptions.

To interact with other participants.

To do a personal assessment.

material

— Learning tool 2.A: From a teaching paradigm to a learning paradigm

— Learning tool 2.B: Summary of the characteristics of the two paradigms

— Learning tool 2.C: Statements to be discussed

— Learning tool 2.D: Summary of the characteristics of the evaluation of

learning based on the new paradigm

documentation

As an extension to the activity, reading the following will clarify the changes

relative to the new paradigm. A description can be found in the previous

pages.

— Document 2.A: A new paradigm in the evaluation of learning

— Document 2.B: To support the emergence of change in the evaluation

of learning

— Document 2.C: To bring changes to the evaluation of learning

document

Complementary document 2:

“Alternate ways of designing and evaluating learning”

duration

This activity can be divided into two parts:

Part A and B, approximately 2 hours.

Part C, D and E, approximately 3 hours.

Comments

The discussions will be more advantageous if participants are asked to read the

material beforehand.

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Page 54 de 383

Learning tool 2.A

From a teaching paradigm to a learning paradigm

From a teaching paradigm to a …

Learning paradigm

In

a teaching paradigm

, learning is subordinate to

teaching. In other words, students learn because

they are taught and it is primarily the quality of the

instruction they receive which determines the

quality of their learning. From this point of view,

the emphasis is on the teaching process more than

on the learning process, and on the products or

observable demonstrations of learning more than on

the thought process or the reasoning process that

underscore them. This concept, inherited from

learning behaviourists and mastery learning in

particular, places the emphasis on the “a priori”

determination of objectives that correspond to the

totality of skills― be they attitudes, aptitudes or

knowledge

―

that we plan on teaching students and

on the development of evaluation processes to

determine with precision if the subject taught was

actually learned.

In short, we tend to establish a direct

correspondence between what is evaluated and what

is learned, between what is learned and what is

taught. Teaching, learning and evaluation then

correspond clearly to three distinct times within a

linear sequence, and the student is unable to learn

unless he has been taught and evaluations focus

only on what was learned and consequently, taught!

In

a learning paradigm

, teaching does not

determine learning. Its function is primarily to

guide and support it. Therefore, it is not because

someone teaches that the student learns since

learning takes place independent of specific

instruction. We can teach very well and still not

achieve the desired learning objectives (Saint-Onge,

1992a). It is therefore impossible to establish a

direct correspondence between what is taught and

what is learned, since learning does not begin and

end with teaching. It is equally impossible to

evaluate with exact precision what has been learned

as the student often calls upon knowledge other

than what has been specifically taught (Legendre,

1998).

In short, it is not because teaching takes place that

students learn but rather because learning is a

complex process that is cognitive, social and

emotional by nature, requiring specific teaching

practices adapted to the nature of the processes

mobilized. Such a paradigm regards evaluation as

an integral part of the learning process.

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Page 55 de 383

It is from this point of view that programs based on

objectives are created, characterized by the

establishment of numerous fragmented objectives

corresponding to the knowledge and skills that must

be taught and learned then evaluated. One of the

negative side effects of these programs is that they

anchor learning and teaching to the evaluation: we

tend to teach what is easy to evaluate, and students

tend to be motivated to learn relative to what will be

evaluated! The result is evaluations that are

undoubtedly appropriate for linear and atomized

learning, but that prove inadequate when it comes

to evaluating global learning occurring through the

progressive reorganization of prior knowledge – as

is the case with competencies – rather than by the

simple accumulation of knowledge.

Its primary function is not to sanction success or

failure, but to support student learning and guide or

reorient

the

teacher

in

his

pedagogical

interventions. It presupposes a differentiated

instruction, i.e. the ability to implement varied

teaching and learning methods that take into

account student diversity and allow them to travel

on different paths towards academic success (CSE,

1993). This is the perspective of a competency-

based program.

This program stresses the importance of not

approaching the knowledge to be acquired in a

compartmentalized and decontextualized way, but

through interaction and in relation to contexts that

validate their use (Legendre, 2000). It also calls

upon the professionalism of the teacher who must

select teaching strategies that are adapted to the

targeted learning but also to the students and the

specific context. Teaching, learning and evaluation

are not considered sequential, like distinct moments

in a process, but rather as dynamic interactions

within the process. There is no need therefore to

plan for evaluations that are separate from learning

situations. Evaluations become an integral part of a

teaching process that includes methods of

regulation or self-regulation of learning and

teaching activities.

Translated from Marie-Françoise Legendre, “Favoriser l’émergence de changements en matière d’évaluation des apprentissages”,

Vie pédagogique

, n

o

120, September-October 2001, p. 15-19.

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Page 56 de 383

Learning tool 2.B

Summary tables

Table 1: Summary of characteristics of the teaching

and learning paradigms

32

Indicators

Learning paradigm

Teaching paradigm

Learning Concept

— Transformation of information

and knowledge into viable and

transferable knowledge

— Integration of knowledge into

cognitive diagrams

— Creation of relationships

— Memorization

— Accumulation of knowledge

— Interconnection of diverse

knowledge

Classroom activities

— Begin with the student

— Based on projects, research and

problem situations

— Interactive relationships

— Begin with the teacher

— High frequency of practical

activities

— Educational and vertical

relationships

Evaluation methods

— Relative to competencies

developed

— Portfolios

— Relative to knowledge

— Tests requiring short answers

Proof of success

— Quality of understanding

— Quality of the competencies

developed

— Quality of the knowledge

constructed

— Transferability of learning

— Amount of information retained

— Sometimes, the quantity of

acquired knowledge

Teacher’s Role

— Centered on providing support

and the gradual removal of

support

— Sometimes a learner

— An expert

— A conveyer of information

Student’s Role

— A builder

— A collaborator

— Sometimes an expert

— A passive recipient

— A learner who is in listening

mode

32

Translated from Jacques Tardif, presentation to the ministère de l’Éducation du Québec, October 12, 1999.

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Page 57 de 383

The following table highlights differences between what the author calls “constructivism” (learning

paradigm) and traditional trends (teaching paradigm) that are called “instructivism” because of the

prevalence given to instruction (teaching) over learning.

Table 2: Principles of teaching/learning practices in constructivism and

instructivism

33

Constructivism

34

Instructivism

(teaching paradigm)

Individual dimension

1. Student’s role

Active builder of knowledge

Collaborator, sometimes an

expert

Person who listens

Always a learner

2. Learning concept

Transformation of information

into knowledge and meaning

Accumulation of information

3. Cognitive foundations

Interpretation based on prior

knowledge and beliefs

Accumulation based on previously

acquired information

4. Type of activities

Centered on the learner, vary

according to learning styles

Interactive relationship

Centered on the teacher

Didactic relationship

Same practical exercises for all

learners

5. Type of environment

Supportive

Hierarchical

6. Type of curriculum

Rich in resources, centered on

activities

Provides access to information

requested

Pre-established and fixed, provides

only the resources required

7. Proof of success

Quality of understanding and

construction of knowledge

Quantity of memorized

information

8. Flow of activities

Self-directed

Linear and directed by the teacher

9. Evaluation

Relative to developed

competencies, portfolios

Relative to information

Tests with short questions

Standardized tests

Social dimensions

33

Translated from

La transition des instructivismes aux constructivismes par les technologies de la communication au service

de l’enseignement/apprentissage à distance

, Télé-université, 2002. [http://www.refad.ca/constructivisme.html

].

34

Author’s addition to the heading.

35

Id.

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Page 58 de 383

1. Concept of knowledge

A dynamic process that evolves

over time and within a given

culture

A static truth that can be acquired

once and for all, independently of

the learner

2. Teacher’s role

Collaborator, facilitator,

sometimes a learner

Expert, transmitter of knowledge

3. Teaching focus

Creating relationships

Answers to complex questions

Memorization

Focus on information

4. Principal actions

Centered on cooperative work

Project development and problem

solving

Individual readings and exercises

5. Social model

The community, sense of

belonging

People who act on their

environment and are not only

dependent on it

Development of autonomy,

metacognition and critical

thinking

Classroom

Learners as recipients of

transmitted knowledge

6. The role of play

Play and experimentation as valid

forms of learning

Play = waste of time

Limited experimentation

Tools and technologies

Varied: computers, DVDs,

technologies that impact the

learner in his daily existence,

books, magazines, periodicals,

films, etc.

Paper, pencil, texts, some films,

videos, etc.

In summary, this table shows that constructivists relate to a post-modern educational paradigm where the

learner constructs his own interpretation of events and information. Knowledge is not set in stone.

Authentic tasks and projects are looked upon as stimulating. Constant collaboration is an integral part of

educational practices.

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Learning tool 2.C

Statements to be discussed

From a teaching paradigm to a learning paradigm

Statements to be discussed

My beliefs

Learning is subordinate to teaching. In other words,

it is because we teach that the students learn and it

is primarily the quality of the teaching that

determines the quality of the learning.

Personal notes:

……………………………………………………

……………………………………………………

……………………………………………………

……………………………………………………

……………………………………………………

It is not possible to establish a correspondence

between what is taught and what is learned.

Personal notes:

……………………………………………………

……………………………………………………

……………………………………………………

……………………………………………………

……………………………………………………

The student can only learn if he is subjected to

some form of teaching and the evaluation must only

deal with what has been learned.

Personal notes:

……………………………………………………

……………………………………………………

……………………………………………………

……………………………………………………

……………………………………………………

We tend to teach what is easy to evaluate and the

students tend to be motivated to learn only what

will be evaluated.

Personal notes:

……………………………………………………

……………………………………………………

……………………………………………………

……………………………………………………

……………………………………………………

The evaluation is an integral part of the learning

process. Its principal function is not to sanction

success or failure, but to support the student’s

learning process, to direct or reorient educational

interventions.

Personal notes:

……………………………………………………

……………………………………………………

……………………………………………………

……………………………………………………

……………………………………………………

While support can be given to competency

development, strictly speaking, we cannot teach a

competency.

Personal notes:

……………………………………………………

……………………………………………………

……………………………………………………

……………………………………………………

……………………………………………………

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Statements to be discussed

My beliefs

Formative evaluation involves a rigid control of the

learning progress for each student relative to the

imposed criteria for success.

Personal notes:

……………………………………………………

……………………………………………………

……………………………………………………

……………………………………………………

……………………………………………………

To evaluate, regardless of the method used, is to

make a judgment and the fact of assigning a grade

on the basis of a normative or criteria-based

evaluation in no way eliminates the involvement of

judgment.

Personal notes:

……………………………………………………

……………………………………………………

……………………………………………………

……………………………………………………

……………………………………………………

If the evaluation given to a student consists of

completing a single exercise sheet, the teacher will

not have access to pertinent data on which to judge

the level of competency development.

Personal notes:

……………………………………………………

……………………………………………………

……………………………………………………

……………………………………………………

……………………………………………………

The transition from an evaluation centered on

validation and selection to an evaluation, whose

essential function is to support learning and

teaching, marks an important shift in the evaluation

culture.

Personal notes:

……………………………………………………

……………………………………………………

……………………………………………………

……………………………………………………

……………………………………………………

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Learning tool 2.D

Summary of characteristics of the evaluation of

learning based on the new paradigm

The evaluation of learning at collegial level is marked by the new paradigm; it is carried out in a

professional manner and within a program perspective.

characterized by

36

Which, on a methodological plane, signifies:

1.

An evaluation adapted to a

competency-based approach

,

resulting in complex,

multidimensional, integrated and

transferable learning.

An evaluation:

— that is global, multidimensional;

— contextualized;

— that provides students with real opportunities to

demonstrate their competencies;

— while ensuring standardization in passing requirements and

evaluation criteria.

2.

An evaluation that truly

serves learning

, an evaluation

that is integrated into teaching

and learning processes: that

guides and helps students to

assume responsibility for their

learning and, finally provides a

reliable validation of learning

achieved.

An evaluation:

— that is dynamic rather than static;

o

with snapshots taken at specific times to create a

picture of learning in motion;

o

concerned with results but also with the process;

— carried out within a didactic perspective and not one that is

exclusively docimological;

— used not only to establish reports or make assessments but

also for diagnostic purposes;

— that offers the possibility of various adjustments in the

pursuit of learning;

— that takes into account not only cognitive but also affective

aspects;

— that calls on a variety of evaluators (teacher responsible for

guiding the learning, other teachers, students, evaluators

from outside the educational environment);

—

that withholds making a final judgment on the learning

achieved until the end of the total learning period

3.

An evaluation that is criteria

based

, that judges the

achievement of learning

objectives rather than seeking to

classify students in relation to

each other (normative

evaluation).

An evaluation:

— concerned with validity rather than discrimination;

—

that makes use of qualitative approaches using descriptive

methods.

36

Translated from Cécile D’Amour and Groupe de travail at Performa,

L’évaluation des apprentissages au collégial : du

cours au programme

, Fascicule II. Cadre de référence. Première partie : Les questions préalables, première édition, [s. l.],

April 1996, p. 15-18.

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4.

A forward-thinking

,

methodology,

re-establishing the

role of professional judgment

and recognizing student

accountability, a thorough and

adapted methodology.

— that is adapted:

— to the first three characteristics;

— to the function of a given evaluation: support for the

learning process or certification of learning achieved;

— thorough, which means:

—

it allows judgment to play its role;

—

its methods and learning tools (scales, calculations, etc.)

are properly used, in accordance with their conditions of

use.

This second part completes the table of characteristics and stresses the value of professional

judgment

37

.

A culture of shared responsibility

(Legendre, 2001, p. 18 et 19)

From the perspective of evaluations integrated into learning we

should accentuate the support of learning functions. This would

lead to a clear definition of the roles of interveners in student

education, beginning with the student himself. Moreover, we

should not underestimate the importance of support given by the

institution in stimulating dialogue within the program team.

Thus the role assigned to

professional judgment,

far from

isolating the teacher in his decisions, is closely linked to

individual and collective methods

and is included in the culture

of shared responsibility. In other words, it is not solely the

teacher’s responsibility to provide means that ensure the highest

educational success for the greatest number of students, but that

of the organization as a whole.

The preponderance of

professional judgment

An evaluation, regardless of the form used, automatically

implies a judgment and assigning a grade on the basis of a

normative or criteria-based evaluation in no way eliminates the

need for a judgment.

The role of professional judgment does not introduce an

arbitrary element into an apparently neutral evaluation process.

It simply recognizes the role of judgment in any professional

activity, whatever it may be. The mark of a professional is the

capacity to make a judgment

in his field of expertise. It therefore

seems necessary to bring a certain clarification to the concept of

professional judgment.

37

Translated from Marie-France Legendre, “Favoriser l’émergence de changements en matière d’évaluation des

apprentissages”,

Vie pédagogique

, n

o

120, 2001, p. 18 and 19.

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The characteristics of professional judgment

A professional judgment is a

judgment

based on responsibility.

Every professional is constantly faced with situations that he

must evaluate in order to make decisions, direct his

interventions and revise them as need be. The professional is not

content to merely do what is asked of him. He has the necessary

autonomy

to determine what seems appropriate, based on the

data available to him and his personal knowledge and

experience. He is able to assume

responsibility

for his decisions

and choices since the latter are supported by recognized

expertise.

A person is regarded as a professional when he possesses

knowledge and experience that allows him to evaluate in a

suitable way the various situations he experiences in his

practice. He should be able to make sound decisions and to

assume responsibility for them; to succeed in his actions and

make any adjustments along the way, taking new data into

account. Autonomy and responsibility do not mean that the

professional acts alone. That is not the case. In fact, a mark of

professional autonomy and responsibility is to seek advice from

a more experienced colleague or to find the expertise which

supplements our own, when dealing with a situation that taxes

the limits of our competency. In this respect, the teaching

profession is no different from any other. The teacher is not a

simple doer. In the context of his daily practice, he never stops

evaluating situations in relation to clues he finds significant, he

continues to make choices and decisions (Perrenoud, 1996). To

upgrade the teacher’s professional judgment does not mean

introducing something new into teaching practices but rather

recognizing that this judgment exists and assigning its rightful

role in an evaluation that is an integral part of daily practice. It is

accepting to maintain evaluation as an integral part of a

teacher’s field of activity.

38

Translated from Marie-Françoise Legendre, “Favoriser l’émergence de changements en matière d’évaluation des

apprentissages”,

Vie pédagogique

, n

o

120, September-October 2001, p. 15-19.

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with the help of tools.

The teacher has various tools

(didactic tools, evaluation and

self-evaluation instruments, etc.) that can be used within his

professional activities. He must sometimes adapt the tool to the

particular situation at hand. When he evaluates a situation,

makes a decision and accomplishes an action, every

professional

has a wealth of resources available that he can use,

when it is relevant, useful or necessary to do so.

However, his competency does not rely on the tools he has at

his disposal, but rather on his ability to use them. A tool is not

good or bad in itself, but rather in relation to its relevancy

to a

context or established goal. With regard to the evaluation of

learning,

specific tools can be suitable for making a clear

diagnosis

on certain components of the competency, yet prove

completely inadequate when it comes to evaluating a

competency in its totality.

Accordingly, existing evaluation

methods are not put aside but must support professional

judgment. This makes it possible to delimit their use and, if

necessary, to design other tools that are better adapted to the

new requirements identified in the follow-up and assessment of

competencies.

A professional judgment is based

on a competency to observe while

the situation unfolds.

To observe does not mean to collect information passively, it

means to record observations, actively organize and interpret

them based on a frame of reference. To assess the development

of competencies

on the basis of observation, two conditions are

necessary: access to pertinent data

and the ability to give that

data meaning. To access pertinent data,

it is important to call

on a sufficient number of diversified learning situations so the

student may apply

his competencies and pursue their

development. To interpret data requires a sufficiently precise

representation of the competency whose development is being

supported.

Every task has limitations relative to the data it can provide and

every task does not necessarily allow us to evaluate a

competency. Therefore, a variety of tasks relative to what we

want to observe is needed so that we may avoid making a global

judgment based on limited data.

It is necessary however to avoid establishing a term-to-term

correspondence between the task and the object of evaluation.

One task can call several competencies into play, and the same

competency can be required in several distinct tasks.

Admittedly, when the teacher gives the students relatively

complex tasks that require more than one competency, it is not

possible to observe everything at the same time. Observation is

selective by definition and it is completely valid to favour

specific data based on the goals or the information sought. But

we must not fail to recognize competencies other than the ones

targeted by the observation when they appear. “

What counts in

observation,

specifies Perrenoud,

is more the theoretical

framework that guides and governs the interpretation of what is

being observed than the instrumentation used.”

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In this respect, the teacher’s observations are closely linked to

the underlying frame of reference, both in the selection of

pertinent data and their interpretation, i.e. to interconnect them

to determine the meaning. The competency that will be observed

presupposes not only the ability to design learning situations

likely to provide interesting material for what we wish to

observe, but also the ability to interpret the data collected based

on our experience and knowledge. An adequate representation

of competencies to be developed and learning situations likely to

support their development proves to be essential.

evolutionary judgment.

Professional judgment is

an evolutionary judgment as it relies

on a portrait taken at a specific time in the process, a portrait

that can be modified through the addition of new information.

On the one hand, the competency is evolving, as is its evaluation

since it relies on information observed at a specific moment and

within a specific context and situation. On the other hand,

observations by the teacher are incomplete and can be enriched

by the contribution of new data. Indeed, according to the

learning situations proposed to students and the disciplinary

contexts in which they take place, teachers do not necessarily

have access to the same data. It is thus important, particularly

with regard to transversal competencies, to share observations

that come from varied sources.

It is indeed through their actualization in varied disciplinary

contexts that teachers will be able to make an assessment of the

student’s transversal competencies. The teacher’s judgment can

thus be enriched by observations made by other participants,

such as other teachers or interveners and even the students

themselves.

Professional judgment rests on the close

cooperation of the various interveners. New data can cause the

teacher to modify or revise a portion of the judgment. It can

also bring about an evolution in the frame of reference that

supports the observations.

The professional judgment must

be

an ethical judgment

in

conformity with a set of values.

The teacher must not be prejudiced in his judgement of the

student. His interventions are intended to support learning and

development and must be founded on a “concept of

educability”, i.e. confidence in the potential of the child

(Meirieu, 1991). As an educator, every teacher is endowed with

a certain “power” and has an influence over his students. He

must use this power and influence in an ethical manner; he must

be particularly sensitive to the impact his evaluations have on

the development of the student’s academic, personal and social

identity. Experience acquired in educational environments often

carries lasting influences on student self-image both as a learner

and as a human being. It can have a determining impact on the

student’s future social and professional integration. With respect

to ethics, the teacher must acknowledge the limitations of his

professional judgment, the need for a solid foundation and the

possibility that his judgment may be called into question.

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Conclusion

From the perspective of competency-based development, the

evaluation should not be considered a separate entity from the

learning process, whose sole function is to make a judgment on

the learning achieved. Any situation can be viewed from the

dual perspective of the learning it hopes to achieve and the

observations it elicits in support of the evaluation. It is not

necessary therefore to design evaluations that are distinct from

learning situations.

In a program that places specific teacher interventions in the

broader context of their contribution to general training, teachers

are collectively rather than individually responsible for

providing support to learning. The same applies to the

evaluation that is part of the culture of shared responsibility.

Lastly, in this context of collective responsibility, it is important

to clearly recognize the roles and responsibilities

of each

individual

and to examine them in light of their

complementarity. It is from this perspective that professional

judgment takes its true meaning and acknowledges the teacher’s

expertise.

The transition from

an evaluation centered on approval and

selection to an evaluation

whose essential function is to support

learning and teaching, marks an important change in our

evaluation culture. It goes without saying that cultural changes

do not occur overnight. We must take the time and apply the

means necessary to evolve,

to gradually modify current practices

and adapt them to new requirements and constraints. We must

also have a clear vision of the direction in which we are headed.

Cultural changes do not mean that we must put aside all current

practices and sweep them away. It is rather a realignment to

better identify the role

and limitations of current evaluation

practices and to conceive of new practices that supplement,

enrich and bring new meaning in a renewed context.

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Document 2.A

A new paradigm in the evaluation of learning

39

The evaluation of learning is not considered foreign to the

pedagogical process. It is an integral part of teaching and

learning; it facilitates the decision-making process

as regards

the behaviour of the professor and the process undertaken by

the student.

The concept of evaluations is more and more evident in writings on education. We are questioning

evaluation practices used in our classrooms and we see an opportunity to evaluate the various aspects of

our school system. For many of us, this type of thinking causes some concern: we know that change is in

the air and that this change is inevitable. We suspect that it involves the way in which we evaluate

learning. We also know that we will be personally challenged, sooner or later, because it is at the very

core of our beliefs. Many fear these changes, others await them eagerly. This difference in attitudes

relative to current trends in evaluation occurs naturally in all major transitional states. We are living a

great change in paradigm as regards evaluation and change brings, as it always does, a certain amount of

confusion. […]

The consequences

This new way of viewing evaluations forces us to re-examine the concept we have of the teacher-student

relationship; it also causes us to question, among other things, the interpretation of grades that the

professor assigns to his students as well as the impact of evaluations on teaching and learning.

The interpretation of grades

In an excellent study on grading practices, Suzan Brookhart explains that a grade assigned by a teacher

will be analyzed on one hand, and used on the other. Therefore, because many professors worry about the

use that will be made of the grade (failure of a student who was showing promise, abandonment of a

training profile, difficulty in finding employment or gaining entrance to university), many teachers will

add circumstantial variables to indicate the student has potential, has put forth valid efforts or shows

promise. These variables (effort, participation, etc.) directly raise the grade that would be lower if based

solely on acquired competencies.

This gives rise to a new problem. If we worry about the social impact of the evaluation to the point where

we introduce diverse variables for the final grading, we reach a point where we are unable to interpret the

grade assigned. According to Brookhart, several teachers are ambivalent when they think about the

interpretability of the grade, on the one hand, and the social use of the grade on the other. According to

her, several authors stress that this phenomenon calls into question the validity of evaluations and

maintain that the interpretation of grades and the social impact of their use must be included in the criteria

being analyzed with regard to the validity of an evaluation.

In the United States, professors are increasingly conscious of their social responsibility in this respect.

Many are the target of lawsuits resulting from unjustified failures and successes among students.

39

Translated from Robert Howe and Louise Ménard, “Conseillers pédagogiques Collège Montmorency”,

Pédagogie

collégiale,

March 1993, vol. 6 n° 3.

In this excerpt, references listed in the article were removed to avoid confusion with notes found at the bottom of the

document page.

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Teaching and learning

The choice of evaluation strategy, tools and practices impacts both students and professors, particularly in

their selection of content and pedagogical approach. What is not evaluated tends to disappear from the

curriculum.

If this assertion is true, we can then say that exams and strategies used to evaluate have a

determining influence on teaching and learning. According to Gong, evaluation has such a leverage effect

that simply changing evaluation practices can modify teaching practices.

Guy Romano did some research on student study practices at collegial level. He notes that students

develop study strategies that are more or less complex and have more or less depth depending on the

exams they will have to pass. The choice of evaluation practice by the teacher (instrumentation,

frequency, rating, feedback, strategies, and taxonomy levels) will therefore be the deciding factor, at least

to some degree, for the study methods used by the students.

Lundeberg makes the same observations. If the student believes that the professor will evaluate his

learning through the use of objective questions and that these questions usually measure memorized

knowledge, he will tend to study superficially. Similarly, if the student believes that the professor will

use open questions and that these questions usually measure understanding or application skills, his study

will be more in-depth and analytical.

Beginning with the first evaluation, students quickly pick up on what the professor considers important in

the subject matter and tend to study relative to this perception. They tend to adjust their study strategies

relative to their professor’s evaluation strategy and this causal connection is so strong, according to

Crooks that the best way of modifying student learning behaviour is to modify evaluation practices.

Professors understand this and many try to influence the choice of study method by implementing specific

evaluation strategies. In recent research, Green shows that some professors believe that “development

questions” in exams are likely to discourage study when used to measure higher cognitive skills, because

they call upon reflective and analytical capacities. According to these professors, students tend to trust

their ability to improvise, to a certain extent. Based on this, teachers tend to use only objective exams that

measure basic knowledge. On the other hand, some teachers believe that students study more when

questions requiring development are used and that these questions lend themselves better to the

measurement of higher cognitive skills. In spite of the apparent inconsistencies, these observations clearly

show that professors want to adopt evaluation practices relative to the influence they want to have on

study habits.

Conclusion

Although Ralph Tyler identified economic, social and political constraints needed “to shake off” the old

paradigm, we recognize that research in humanities, evolution in the sciences of education and cognitive

psychology help our understanding and the new paradigm to move forward. But the transition from the

old to the new can be confusing. Indeed, in educational matters, we are not always able to accurately

distinguish evaluation concepts by linking them to one paradigm or another. And, to complicate matters,

many are not even aware that there is a paradigm – old or new – at the centre of the debate.

In any event, the old paradigm that dominated for the past forty years has given education an air of

scientific precision while encouraging traditions of scientific thoroughness, as much in research as in

psychometrics. But we are living a definite paradigm shift in evaluation that is leading us to see

evaluations as an integral part of education and a powerful tool for improving learning.

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Document 2.B

“To support the emergence of change in the

evaluation of learning”

Introduction

The many debates in the media on the evaluation of learning, held within the context of educational

reform and the development of a new educational program in Québec schools, are very revealing. For one

thing, the topic of evaluation brings out many fears: loss of objectivity, loss of control and lowering of

standards.

No one remains untouched! For some, it promises the achievement of learning objectives and

provides an objective basis on which to determine student success or failure, as per pre-established

criteria. For others, it should be a support to learning and assist in the academic success of the greatest

number possible. Some fear that a change of perspective in evaluation will lead to a lower level of

performance. Others consider it necessary to reconsider the role of evaluations in the global context of

learning and teaching activities centered on competency development. To evaluate is to assess without

knowing the impact of our evaluation; and to be evaluated is to be judged and, possibly, significantly

impacted by the judgment (Lemay, 2000). It is thus not surprising that the question of the evaluation of

learning is considered one of the major issues in the current educational reform.

The transition from programs based on objectives to programs centered on competency development

points to a paradigm shift that has serious repercussions on the way we think of evaluations, their role in

learning, the culture in which they originate and new requirements relative to accountability and methods.

We will initially examine exactly what this “change in paradigm” is and its implications on the evaluation

of learning. We will then tackle the central question of evaluation integrated into learning in a

competency-based program. Lastly, we will see that this function of the evaluation must fall under shared

responsibility that grants a central role to professional judgment and makes room for other participants.

1. A change in paradigm

The concept of learning which supports the new educational program in Québec schools points to a

“paradigm rupture” (Tardif, 1998) or, in other words, a break from a teaching paradigm to a learning

paradigm. But what exactly does this mean? It certainly does not mean that teaching is considered a

secondary function and that the focus is now exclusively on learning. It is rather a question of rethinking

the relationship between learning, teaching and evaluation by seeing them not as independent entities, but

rather in their dynamic interrelationship within an educational process. To better understand the nature of

this change and its impact on the design of evaluations; let us briefly see what characterizes these

individual paradigms.

From a teaching paradigm...

In a

teaching paradigm,

learning is subordinate to teaching. In other words, students learn because they

are taught; and it is primarily the quality of the instruction they receive that determines the quality of their

learning. From this point of view, the emphasis is on the teaching process more than on the learning

process, and on the products or observable demonstrations of learning more than on the concept or

reasoning process that underscores them. This approach, inherited from learning behaviourists and

mastery learning in particular, places the emphasis on the

a priori

determination of objectives that

correspond to the totality of skills

―

be it attitudes, aptitudes or knowledge

―

that we will teach and on

the development of evaluation processes to determine with precision if the subject matter taught was

actually learned.

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In short, we tend to establish a direct correspondence between what is evaluated and what is learned,

between what is learned and what is taught. Teaching, learning and evaluation then correspond clearly to

three distinct moments within a linear sequence, with the student unable to learn unless he is subjected to

instruction; the evaluation is focused exclusively on what was learned and, consequently, taught! It is

from this point of view that programs based on objectives are created and defined by numerous goals

corresponding to the knowledge and skills that must be taught, learned, and then evaluated. One of the

side effects of these programs is that they anchor learning and teaching to the evaluation: we tend to

teach what is easy to evaluate, and students tend to be motivated to learn in relation to what will be

evaluated! The result is evaluations that are undoubtedly appropriate for linear and atomized learning, but

which prove inadequate when it comes to evaluating global learning occurring through the progressive

reorganization of prior knowledge, as is the case with competencies, rather than by the simple

accumulation of knowledge.

…

to a learning paradigm

In a learning paradigm, teaching does not determine learning. Its function is primarily to guide and

support it. Therefore, it is not because someone teaches that the student learns, since learning happens

independently of specific instruction, and we can teach very well and still not achieve the desired learning

objectives (Saint-Onge, 1992a). It is not possible to establish a direct correspondence between what is

taught and what is learned, since learning does not begin and end with teaching. It is equally impossible to

evaluate with exact precision what has been learned, as the student often calls upon knowledge other than

what has been specifically taught (Legendre, 1998).

In short, it is not because teaching takes place that students learn but rather because learning is a complex

process that is cognitive, social and affective by nature, that requires specific teaching practices and that is

adapted to the nature of the process used. Such a paradigm regards evaluation as an integral part of the

learning process. Here, its primary function is not to sanction success or failure, but to support the

student’s learning process and guide or reorient the teacher’s pedagogical interventions. It implies a

differentiated instruction, i.e. the ability to apply varied teaching and learning methods that take into

account student diversity and allow different students to take different routes towards academic success

(CSE, 1993). This is the perspective of a competency-based program. This program stresses the

importance of not approaching ‘knowledge to be acquired’ in a compartmentalized and decontextualized

way, but through interactions and in contexts that validate its use (Legendre, 2000). The program also

calls upon the teacher’s professionalism in selecting teaching strategies that are not only adapted to the

desired learning but also to the students and the specific context. Teaching, learning and evaluation are

not considered sequential, like specific moments in a teaching process but rather as dynamic interactions

within the process. There is no need therefore to plan for evaluations that are separate from learning

situations. Evaluations become an integral part of a teaching process that includes methods of regulation

or self-regulation of learning and teaching activities.

2. Evaluation integrated into learning

The ever-increasing distance between learning and evaluation is linked to the decontextualization of

knowledge, disciplinary compartmentalization, the division of knowledge and the atomization of

competencies. The growing gap is the result of the belief that knowledge and skills can be taught in small

relatively stable units that are separate from each other and, once acquired, will combine and

subsequently transfer from one context to another (for example: learning a grammatical rule, a list of

vocabulary words, a definition, a mathematical algorithm, etc.) The learning situation consists of

memorized knowledge and the use of previously taught skills, while the evaluation takes the form of a

“test” relating to a specific subject, at a specific time and in a specific context, that is often artificial and

restrictive (Tardif, 1998). In a competency-based approach, we cannot separate the acquisition of

knowledge from the context in which it acquires its meaning. Consequently, the distinction between

learning situations and evaluations seems of little importance. Every situation becomes an opportunity

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for learning and evaluation insofar as it offers the student the opportunity for metacognition, and an

evaluation of the steps he has taken so far. It provides the teacher with observable data to track the

development of competencies. One of the principal challenges of the new educational program in Québec

schools is the emergence of new evaluation practices compatible with targeted goals, i.e. adapted to the

process of developing competencies and to student diversity. It is within this context that

evaluation

integrated into learning

takes its meaning, i.e. evaluations whose main role is to manage the learning

process.

The regulation of learning and teaching activities

Let us say straightaway that with regard to the development of competencies, we cannot, properly

speaking, teach a competency. A competency is not knowledge or skills that can be taught, learned,

practiced, and then evaluated. For example, the competency to “write” is knowledge to act that mobilizes

a diversity of external and internal resources and this competency is developed over the years. It calls

upon knowledge and various strategies that the student will gradually have to adopt, but it cannot be

reduced to procedural know-how that is applied in a certain order to a series of predetermined stages.

There are various ways of completing a writing task depending on the goals, the nature of the activity, its

context, the internal and external resources available to the student, etc. To approach learning from the

perspective of competency development is to put in place learning situations that are favourable to this

development, whether completing a task, solving a problem or carrying out a project.

From this point of view, a pedagogical structure includes the planning of learning activities based on

clearly defined teaching goals, their adjustment along the way, and finally a review of the activities to

facilitate learning. Since it is never possible to plan or anticipate all eventualities, the teacher must adapt

his own interventions to the effects observed. Similarly, he must provide timely feedback to the students

on their process, which is also unpredictable. The teacher needs to collect observations on the difficulties

students have encountered and on the learning they have achieved so he can direct or reorient his teaching

practices. Similarly, the teacher needs clues to evaluate the impact of his own interventions if he is to

support students in their learning process. These aspects can relate to both the teacher’s pedagogical

process and the student’s learning process. The on-going adjustments can relate to a specific aspect of the

process or to more general aspects. Thus a distinction is established between

micro-regulations, which

are

short-term and integrated into the daily work of the teacher, and

macro-regulations, which

are more

systematic and call for a reflection by the teacher on his practice so he may orient his future interventions.

He can occasionally resort to instrumentation but regulations are generally based on interaction that takes

place during an activity. They also target the gradual involvement of the student in the management or

regulation of his own learning process.

The concept of regulation is linked to the well-known

formative evaluation

whose principal function is

to ensure the progress of learning through a process of continuous regulation and that allows for

adjustments or improvements along the way. In this respect, Perrenoud (1999) specifies:

“any

evaluation that helps the student learn and develop is formative, in other words, it regulates the

learning and development of an educational project “

(p. 120). Scallon (1999) formulates a similar

notion when he discusses the formative evaluation in the context of situational pedagogy centered on the

development of competencies and the achievement of trans-disciplinary objectives. Here, the emphasis

is placed on the regulating role brought about by discussions between students and teachers and on the

importance of involving student metacognitive capacity.

However, the concept of

formative evaluation

initially originated within the behaviourist approach to

teaching and mastery learning, where the methods of regulation considered are corrective in nature and

solely the responsibility of the teacher. The formative evaluation then exerts a stringent control over

student progress relative to predetermined criteria that qualify success. It often takes the form of a

criteria-based test, given after the learning period and followed by remedial teaching. In current

practices, the formative evaluation has gradually lost its significance and initial purpose and become

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synonymous with continuous micro-summative evaluations. The competency-based approach invites the

academic environment to reconsider the formative evaluation within the broader framework of

regulation and self-regulation processes occurring along the way, i.e., within the unfolding of the

learning and teaching activities, and subsequent to the activity, to better direct future teacher

interventions. In this respect, the formative evaluation is only one form of regulation among others. The

teacher’s observations, student feedback, student interaction as well as co-evaluation and self-evaluation

processes generally play an important role. In addition, the gradual assumption of responsibility by the

student for regulating his activities not only supports learning, but, more importantly, represents a true

learning objective since it involves developing the student’s metacognitive capacity by allowing him to

self-regulate his own learning processes (Scallon, 1999).

The assessment of acquired learning

From the perspective of evaluation integrated into learning, it is not necessary to dissociate

the

assessment of learning

that takes place at the end of the cycle and evaluates the learning achieved, from

the

regulation activities

that support learning, since they complement each other. To assess learning, it

is necessary to follow its progression. In developing competencies, a continuous regulation of learning

and teaching activities is vital and it is considered beneficial to evaluate them at various moments within

the cycle. The role of end-of-cycle assessments is to update the parents on their child’s progress, let the

student know where he stands and provide information for teachers in the upcoming cycle.

Even though

the assessment of learning

is linked to the

summative evaluation,

it is nonetheless different

in many ways. In current practice, the

summative evaluation

can be generally summarized as the sum of

partial results, as formal evaluations or tests carried out periodically during the school year. The

assessment in this case is more a

snapshot

of the situation using a variety of data collected during the

learning activity and not through formal evaluations designed for this purpose. This data is not merely

cumulative but also subject to interpretation. It is a global and summary assessment relating to one or

more competencies and generally accompanied by more precise data on certain aspects of learning. The

data points to student difficulties and also his strengths, since it is important to focus on these to support

the student in his learning. When a student experiences certain difficulties that require intervention, they

must be clearly defined in order to identify the appropriate support. But it is also essential to underscore

the student’s acquisition, the progress he has achieved and the interest he displays or the particular

aptitudes he possesses.

The assessment of learning must

be supported by evaluation methods that are

compatible with the characteristics of a given competency (Legendre, 2000). It must take into account the

complexity, as well as the global, interactive and evolutionary character of a competency.

A competency is

complex

, it is not simply the sum of its components but the result of their dynamic

organization. It can only be evaluated globally, as components cannot be taken separately. In the course

of learning, from a perspective of regulating learning and teaching activities, it can be more advantageous

to work on specific components of the competency, such as a particular skill or knowledge. It is also

pertinent to resort to more precise diagnostic tools to determine the nature or the source of the difficulties

observed. However, we can only judge the development of a competency if the student is regularly placed

in situations that are sufficiently complex to require the mobilization and integrated use of various

resources. It is by confronting the student with various tasks and encouraging him to apply his

competencies, that the teacher will be able to collect pertinent observations to evaluate his level of

development.

A competency is

global

and

integrative

since it calls upon a diversity of internal and external resources

and rests on the way an individual orchestrates its use in a given situation. Admittedly, it is possible and

even desirable to identify

a priori

a certain number of indispensable resources that the student will be

required to call upon in a given situation. But it is never possible to predict in an exhaustive way all the

resources that students will need to accomplish a task, carry out a project or solve a problem. Indeed,

these resources differ from one student to another, since students do not all have the same knowledge and

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experience or interests and aptitudes. Consequently, there is more than one way of expressing

competencies within a given situation.

Take the case, for example, of a teacher who should be able to evaluate student competency when it

comes to writing texts even if the students do not use the same vocabulary, or develop ideas and structure

texts differently. As a result, the teacher takes into account the overall totality of the competency when

judging the development of a competency, and not each individual component used. Admittedly, to

achieve various tasks, the student has to make use of varied knowledge and strategies. However, it is not

each mobilized resource that is evaluated but rather the result of their dynamic interaction and

mobilization in a variety of situations.

Thus, when evaluating a competency as a professional, the

teacher keeps track of student progress from the start of the training with observations made under a

variety of circumstances. A competency is

interactive

because it does not exist by itself, but relative to the

contexts in which it is used and the conditions that necessitate its use.

To evaluate a competency, contexts must be provided that require the deliberate activation of the

competency and provide students with resources that maximize its use. For example, we cannot evaluate

the competency “working cooperatively” if a student has not been given opportunities to accomplish tasks

that by their nature require cooperative work. Other competencies will require other settings, contexts and

conditions. The choice of situations that correspond to the competencies we want to observe, the analysis

of resources needed to accomplish the task, and a context that provides meaning, are all essential factors.

However, even when it is designed to elicit the activation of a specific competency, a learning situation

usually calls upon more than one competency. It is therefore an opportunity for both learning and

evaluation. Indeed, the student can only use his competencies if he is given opportunities to do so. And it

is through mastery of competencies that he provides the teacher with pertinent observable data. It is also

during these activities that he can be asked to use his metacognitive capacity to examine his own

competencies. This is why there is no need, even when dealing with assessments, to distinguish between

learning and evaluation situations.

A competency is evolutionary

in that it develops through a series of situations in which it is called into

use. However, this gradual development can be done at varying rates and according to different paths.

This makes it difficult to determine a learning sequence that is identical for all students. Even though it is

possible to have benchmarks for the student along the way, these measurements must not be interpreted as

fixed moments in a sequential and linear acquisition process. In addition, with competency being

evolutionary, the observations collected by the teacher in the course of learning, whether informally or

done with the help of various tools, do not have the same degree of meaning relative to the assessment to

be done. The teacher must use his judgment to evaluate the relative relevance of varying data or clues (a

diversity of work, self-evaluation records, observation grids, comments made by the teacher, etc.),

collected in various contexts and at various moments during the course of development. It is also his

responsibility to establish their meaning by placing them in relation to each other.

This broader concept of evaluation, formative as well as summative, places professional judgment in a

central position and also calls into question the role of the teacher as sole judge and evaluator. In

a

culture of shared responsibility

, it is necessary to tackle the question of evaluation by giving the

interveners the role that is rightfully theirs.

3. A culture of shared responsibility

Even when the teacher implements learning situations targeting specific competencies, especially in the

context of disciplinary learning, the student is necessarily called upon to mobilize other competencies,

specifically

transversal competencies

that do not belong to a specific learning field but must be developed

within all disciplines. Moreover, competencies acquired in a particular disciplinary context should be

transferable to other disciplinary contexts. It becomes very difficult to limit the influence of the teacher to

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a circumscribed field because his interventions contribute to the attainment of general training goals.

Within the framework of a program centered on competency development, each teacher is asked to

contribute to the development of the competencies through his intervention. However, if teachers have a

collective responsibility relative to the general education of students and the development of

competencies, they should also have a collective responsibility with regard to evaluations.

In addition, the new educational program in Québec schools grants students a major role in their own

learning process. From a perspective of evaluations that are integrated into learning, the emphasis placed

on support for learning should ensure that the diverse group of participants responsible for student

education be assigned their appropriate roles, starting with the student himself. Lastly, it is advisable not

to underestimate the importance of the support offered by the school. Therefore, far from isolating the

teacher in his decisions, the role assigned to

professional judgment

is closely linked to the

obligation of

individual and collective means

, and all are included in the culture of shared responsibility where it is not

the sole responsibility of the teacher, but rather of the institution as a whole, to implement means likely to

ensure the educational success of the greatest number of students.

The preponderance of professional judgment

The role we want to assign to professional judgment, both within the new educational program in Québec

schools and within evaluation of learning practices, raises many concerns with parents and teachers alike.

Many see a danger of replacing objective measurement with arbitrary interpretations. Parents fear that the

intrusion of the teacher’s judgment will compromise justice, equality and equity. The general belief is that

an evaluation using grades is completely objective by definition and, consequently free from any biased

judgment. Teachers, for their part, worry that they will be accused of being unjust and arbitrary if they do

not rely primarily, even exclusively, on grades to inform the parents of their child’s progress relative to

targeted learning and the level of achievement at end of cycle.

However, whatever its form, an evaluation is a judgment and the use of grades for a normative or criteria-

based evaluation in no way removes the need for judgment (de Landsheere, 1980). To make room for the

professional judgment of the teacher is not to introduce arbitrary decisions into an apparently neutral

evaluation process; it is to acknowledge the role of judgment in a professional activity, whatever it may

be. The

ability to make a judgment

in a field where one is supposed to have acquired expertise is the mark

of a professional. It thus appears essential to clarify the concept of

professional judgment

.

Let us examine certain characteristics.

A professional judgment is autonomous and based on responsibility

.

Every professional is faced with situations he must constantly evaluate in order to make decisions, direct

his interventions and revise them as need be. The professional is not content to merely do what is asked of

him. He has the necessary autonomy to determine what seems suitable based on the data that is available

to him, plus his own knowledge and experience. He is able to assume responsibility for his decisions and

his choices, since the latter are supported by recognized expertise.

A person is regarded as a professional when he possesses knowledge and experience that allow him to

evaluate in a suitable way the various situations to which he is subjected in his practice, to make sound

decisions and to assume responsibility for them by succeeding in his actions and making adjustments

along the way to take new data into account. Autonomy and responsibility do not mean that the

professional acts alone. That is not the case. It is in fact the mark of professional autonomy and

responsibility to seek advice from a more experienced colleague or to find the expertise which

supplements our own when dealing with a situation that taxes the limits of our competency. In this

respect, the teaching profession is no different from any other. The teacher is not a simple doer. In the

daily context of his practice, he never stops evaluating situations in relation to clues that appear

significant to him, in order to make choices and decisions (Perrenoud, 1996). To recognize the value of

the professional judgment of the teacher is not to introduce something new into teaching practices, but

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rather to recognize that this judgment exists, and assign it its rightful role in an evaluation that is an

integral part of daily practice. It is accepting to not remove evaluations from the professional tasks

incumbent on the teacher.

A professional judgment is supported by tools.

Every professional has the opportunity to use the diverse tools and instruments that are part of the

external resources available in his field of competency. A surgeon will be able to demonstrate his

expertise all the more if he has at his disposal, the conditions and tools adapted to the nature of the

intervention he is planning to undertake. A doctor will make a better diagnosis if he can subject the

patient to appropriate tests or examinations. In the same way, the teacher has various tools (didactic tools,

evaluation and self-evaluation instruments, etc.) that he can use during professional activities. He must

sometimes adapt the tool to the particular situation at hand. But all in all, when it comes to evaluating a

situation, making a decision and accomplishing an action, every professional has a wealth of useful and

pertinent resources available, if necessary,

Teacher competency however, does not rely on the tools a teacher has at his disposal, but rather on his

ability to put the tools to good use. A tool is neither good nor bad in itself, but rather based on its use

within a given context or in relation to a targeted goal. Regarding the evaluation of learning, certain tools

can perform a refined diagnostic on particular components of the competency, but can prove completely

inadequate when it comes to evaluating the competency in its totality. Accordingly, existing evaluation

methods are not to be discarded but must be supported by a professional judgment that alone makes it

possible to ensure proper usage and, if necessary, to design other tools better adapted to the new

requirements demanded by the follow-up and assessment of competency.

The professional judgment of the teacher is based on his competency to make observations while

the situation unfolds.

To observe does not mean to collect information passively, it means to record, actively organize and

interpret observations based on a frame of reference. To assess the development of competencies on the

basis of observation, two conditions are necessary: access to pertinent data and the ability to give that data

meaning. To access pertinent data, it is important to employ a sufficient number of diversified learning

situations allowing the student to apply his competencies and pursue their development. To interpret data

requires a sufficiently precise representation of the competency whose development is being supported. If

a student is asked only to complete an exercise sheet, the teacher will not have access to data for judging

the level of competency development.

Every task has limitations relative to the data it can provide and every task does not necessarily allow us

to evaluate a competency. To this end, a variety of tasks relative to what we want to observe is needed so

that we may avoid making a global judgment based on an insufficient number of tasks. It is necessary

however to avoid establishing a term-to-term correspondence between the task and the object of

evaluation. One task can call several competencies into play, and the same competency can be required in

several distinct tasks. Admittedly, when the teacher gives the students relatively complex tasks that

require more than one competency, it is not possible to observe everything at the same time. Observation

is selective by definition and it is completely valid to favour specific data based on the goals or the

information sought. But we must not fail to recognize competencies other than the ones targeted by the

observation, when they appear. “

What counts in observation,

specifies Perrenoud,

is more the theoretical

framework that guides and governs the interpretation of what is being observed than the instrumentation

used

.”

In this respect, the teacher’s observations are closely linked to the underlying frame of reference, both in

the selection of pertinent data and their interpretation, i.e. the way they relate to each other, their meaning.

The competency that will be observed presupposes not only the ability to design learning situations likely

to provide interesting material for what we wish to observe, but also the ability to interpret the data

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collected based on our experience and knowledge. Consequently, an adequate representation of

competencies to be developed and learning situations likely to support their development proves to be

essential.

Professional judgment is

an evolutionary judgment as it relies

on a portrait taken at a specific time in the

process, a portrait that can be modified through the addition of new information. On the one hand, the

competency is evolving, as is its evaluation since it relies on information observed at a specific moment

and within a specific context and situation. On the other hand, observations by the teacher are incomplete

and can be enriched by the contribution of new data. Indeed, according to the learning situations proposed

to the students and the disciplinary contexts in which they take place, teachers do not necessarily access

the same data. It is thus important, particularly as concerns transversal competencies, to share

observations that come from varied sources.

It is through their actualization in varied disciplinary contexts that teachers will be able to make an

assessment of the student transversal competencies. The judgment of the teacher can thus be enriched by

observations made by other participants, such as other teachers or interveners and even the students

themselves. Professional judgment rests on the close cooperation of the various interveners. New data

can cause the teacher to modify or revise a portion of the judgment. It can also bring about an evolution

of the frame of reference that supports the observations.

Lastly, it should be stressed that a professional judgment must be

an ethical judgment

in conformity with

a set of values. The teacher must always be careful not to be biased towards the student. His interventions

are intended to support learning and development and must be founded on a “concept of educability”, i.e.

confidence in the potential of the child (Meirieu, 1991). As an educator, every teacher is endowed with a

certain “power” and has an influence on his students. He must use this power and influence in an ethical

manner; he must be particularly sensitive to the impact his evaluations have on the development of the

academic, personal and social identity of the student. Experience acquired in educational environments

often carries lasting influences on the student’s self-image both as a learner and as a human being; it can

have a determining impact on the student’s future social and professional integration. With respect to

ethics, the teacher must acknowledge the limitations of his professional judgment, the need for a solid

foundation and the possibility that his judgment may be called into question.

Conclusion

The new competency-based educational program in Québec schools demands particular requirements that

contribute to the establishment of a favourable context for the emergence of changes relative to the

evaluation of learning. The purpose of this article was to highlight some of these changes. From the

perspective of competency-based development, evaluation should not be considered a separate entity

from the learning process, whose sole function is to make a judgment on the learning achieved. Any

situation can be viewed from the dual perspective of the learning it hopes to achieve and the observations

it elicits in support of the evaluation. It is not necessary therefore to design evaluations that are distinct

from learning situations. In a program that places the specific interventions of the teacher in the broader

context of their contribution to general education, teachers are collectively and not only individually

responsible for providing support to learning. The same applies to evaluation that is also part of the

culture of shared responsibility. Lastly, in this context of collective responsibility, it is important to

recognize the roles and responsibilities of each individual clearly and to examine them in light of their

complementarity. It is from this perspective that the professional judgment takes its true meaning and

acknowledges the expertise of the teacher.

The transition from an evaluation centered on approval and selection to an evaluation whose essential

function is to support learning and teaching marks an important change in our evaluation culture. It goes

without saying that cultural changes do not occur overnight. We must take the time and apply the means

necessary to evolve, to gradually modify current practices and adapt them to new requirements and

constraints. We must also have a clear vision of the direction in which we are headed. Cultural changes do

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not mean that we must put aside all current practices and sweep them away. It is rather a realignment to

better identify the role and limitations of evaluation practices and to conceive other ways of evaluating

which supplement and enrich them and contribute towards giving them new meaning in a renewed

context.

(M

me

Marie-Françoise Legendre is a professor in the Department of Psycho-pedagogy and Andragogy at

Université de Montréal.)

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Québec, 1993.

DE LANDSHEERE, G.,

Éducation continue et examens : Précis de docimologie,

Paris, Fernand Nathan,

1980.

LEGENDRE, M.-E., “Transformer les savoirs pour les rendre accessibles aux élèves”

, Vie pédagogique,

n° 108, September-October 1998, p. 35-38.

LEGENDRE, M. A.,

La logique d’un programme par compétences,

conference given by the ministère de

l’Éducation du Québec, Saint-Hyacinthe, May 2000.

LEMAY, V.,

Évaluation scolaire et justice sociale,

Montréal, Éditions du Renouveau pédagogique, 2000.

MEIRIEU, Ph.,

Le choix d’éduquer,

2

e

edition, Paris, ESF editor, 2000.

PERRENOUD, Ph., “Le travail sur l’habitus dans la formation des enseignants : analyse de pratiques et

prise de conscience ”. PAQUAY, L., ALTET, M., CHARLIER, É.

PERRENOUD Ph.,

Former des enseignants professionnels. Quelles stratégies? Quelles compétences?

Bruxelles, De Boeck, 1996.

PERRENOUD, Ph.,

Développer des compétences dès l’école,

Paris, ESF éditeur, 1997b, (collection

Pratiques et enjeux pédagogiques).

PERRENOUD, Ph.,

L’évaluation des élèves,

Paris et Bruxelles, De Boeck, 1999.

SAINT-ONGE, M.,

Moi j’enseigne mais eux, apprennent-ils?

Éd. Beauchemin, 1992, 106 p. (Agora

collection).

SAINT-ONGE, M., “Les objectifs pédagogiques : pour ou contre? ”

Pédagogie collégiale,

vol. 6, n° 2,

1992b, p. 23-38.

SAINT-ONGE, M., “Les objectifs pédagogiques pour ou contre? Les pistes de développement ”,

Pédagogie collégiale,

vol. 6, n° 3, 1992c, p. 10-15.

TARDIF, J.,

Intégrer les nouvelles technologies de l’information. Quel cadre pédagogique?

Paris, ESF

éditeur, 1998.

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Document 2.C

To bring changes to the evaluation of learning

40

New trends in the evaluation of learning propose

changes to the nature of the objects evaluated, the

relationship between evaluation and learning, the

way of interpreting results, and the methodology

used.

Two articles published recently in

Pédagogie collégiale

discussed the major change in

perspective occurring with the evaluation of learning in the United States, where we hear more

and more talk about

assessment

. This new point of view finds support here, specifically as

concerns authentic evaluations or the assessment of competencies.

This article includes excerpts from

L’évaluation

des apprentissages : du cours au programme

. It

includes two instalments: the first one introduces

the problem and the second presents the initial part

of the reference framework for the evaluation of

learning. It will be followed by a second instalment

in the fall and will include suggestions and material

to support changes in evaluation of learning

practices. This documentation was produced by a

working group at Performa, thanks to a subsidy

from the Regroupement des collèges Performa.

Cécile D’Amour served as research agent. The

excerpts used for this article are taken from section

C.2 of Booklet I (p.30-36) and section A.3 of

Booklet II (p. 15-17).

The new perspective differs from the one that has prevailed to date, and many are calling it the

new paradigm i.e. a set of concepts, assumptions, principles, and behaviours adopted by a

community of researchers or interveners, which guides research and activity in a given field.

At a time when many within the collegial environment are questioning the evaluation of learning,

the new paradigm can undoubtedly help the debate move forward: it can be used as a frame of

reference for teachers who wish to reflect on their evaluation practices and beliefs and the values

that underscore them; and it can be a promising pathway for teachers who seek to extricate

themselves from the rut of grade management, bring changes to evaluations and turns them into

pedagogical activities. It can also be a source of inspiration enabling evaluation of learning

measures that are being implemented in colleges today to be more than just administrative rulings

and truly contribute to the quality of teaching and learning.

We will examine this new perspective, specifying the dimensions and factors of change in

question by examining how it is being expressed in writings and by identifying the characteristics

of an evaluation of learning that uses this new paradigm as its starting point.

40

Translated from Cécile D’Amour, “Changer l’évaluation des apprentissages”,

Pédagogie collégiale

, mai 1996,

vol. 9, n

o

4.

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Dimensions and factors of change

Authors who define the context of the paradigm shift speak of various dimensions of change. We

have identified four key ones: the nature of the objects of evaluation, the relationship between

evaluation and learning, the interpretation of summative evaluation results, and the methodology

used to carry out an evaluation.

The nature of the objects of evaluation

The object of evaluation is still learning, but the nature of the learning in question has changed as

a result of two influences, one from within the world of education and the other from without.

On one hand, teaching and learning concepts have been modified, particularly by the influence of

constructivism and cognitivist psychology; on the other hand, learning objectives have also

changed: they often relate to higher abilities of integration and transfer

―

with transfer taking

place not only within the academic context but also beyond.

The relationship between evaluation and learning

We now consider evaluation as an integral part of learning. Previously, the accent in evaluation

was placed on validation; the main emphasis is now on support of learning, both from the

perspective of a diagnostic tool and an evaluation per se.

Here too, internal and external influences have been at work: changes in learning concepts have

brought to light various aspects requiring diagnostic interventions and the regulation of learning

(non-linear character of the process, positive role of errors, affective dimensions, etc.). Besides,

social requirements relative to academic success are on the rise, both qualitatively and

quantitatively. This calls for support measures that are more present and diversified.

The interpretation of summative evaluation results

Whereas the normative perspective once prevailed, a clear consensus is now spreading with

regard to the relevance of using criteria-based interpretation: the learning achieved by a student

is compared to the targeted goal (evaluation with a criteria-based interpretation) rather than

being compared to the performance of others or distributed according to the normal curve

(normative evaluation).

This change results mainly from the fact that school is designed (at the very least, this is what the

official statements say) as an instrument of training, of personal and professional development,

and not as an instrument of social selection.

Methodology

The role of measurement is redefined and reduced, the role of observation and judgment is

increased; qualitative methods are employed, concepts of validity and reliability are re-examined

to better adapt them to the conditions of evaluation which prevail in education (and which differ

largely from psychometrics), etc. These changes are closely dependent on the four dimensions of

change that we have just described. As such, changes in the nature of the objects of evaluation,

in the evaluation-learning relationship and in the way of interpreting the results will necessarily

bring about modifications in methodology. Moreover, two other factors are at play here. On the

one hand, like many other fields in humanities, evaluation is progressively freeing itself from the

vice-grip of measurements and quantitative methods. On the other, we are witnessing increased

requirements with regard to the quality and reliability of evaluation, and for a number of reasons:

— increased awareness of the importance given to social expectations relative to the

effectiveness of academic establishments;

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— increased awareness of the impact of evaluation methods and results on students’ study

behaviour, their goals and the paths they choose for their studies and career;

— general social tendency to respect rights of individuals, to seek fairness and equity;

— general tendency towards professionalism in teaching;

— importance of reliable information on student acquisitions in order to offer the most

coherent and effective type of education.

We should mention that evaluation concepts evolve due to underlying philosophies that also

evolve through social constraints.

Consequently, evaluation methods are also changing.

Furthermore, we can say “it is thanks to research and evolution in humanities, education and

cognitive psychology that our understanding of the new paradigm is evolving”.

What’s in a name

When we read current writings on the assessment of learning originating from Québec and

elsewhere, many expressions are used to describe trends that are more or less current, and more or

less widespread, relative to the evaluation of learning. Expressions like:

competency assessment

,

assessment, authentic assessment

,

alternative assessment

,

and performance-based assessment.

To make sense of all this, it is useful to clarify the meaning of these expressions, in particular by

associating them

with the four dimensions of change we mentioned earlier. It should be noted that

the meaning given to each expression varies based on the author! In addition, an explicit

definition is not always provided. To help the reader distinguish clearly among meanings,

we will

discuss what seems essential

as well as elements that may help better understand the meaning of

the new trends in evaluation.

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Trends

Alternative

assessment

Among the many expressions linked to new trends in evaluation of

learning, “alternative assessment” is the most generic. It is used by most

authors to qualify the various practices that differ from traditional

practices, particularly standardized multiple-choice tests.

One or several

dimensions

Assessment

The

assessment

is a type of evaluation characterized by systematic

observation and judgment that is criteria-based, and by its support for

learning. It is truly in the service of learning and integrated within the

process of learning itself. This perspective is accurately expressed by

the term

“assessment as learning”.

This perspective of evaluation as a support for learning is similar to the

concept of formative and diagnostic evaluations; it is also compatible

with the use of

assessment

for the purpose of sanctioning learning.

Methodology

Relationship

between

evaluation and

learning

Learning-

evaluation

To the best of our knowledge, this expression was introduced by Hadji

3

.

It reflects a similar approach to

assessment as learning.

Relationship

between

evaluation and

learning

Competency

assessment

Authors who talk about competency assessment highlight the specific

nature of competencies as well as the methodological requirements for

this type of evaluation.

There is an obvious interest in using a “performance-based evaluation”

to assess multidimensional learning that is integrated and transferable, as

is the case with competencies (this does not mean that performance is

the only type of competency indicator that can be used).

Nature of

learning and,

therefore,

evaluation

objects

Methodology

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Performance

Process/

Performance-

assessment

The expression

“performance assessment”

highlights the type of data

used to make a judgment. In spite of the variations shown by different

authors, it is always a student activity (an action, behaviour, a

demonstration, etc.) that allows for the most direct observation of

student skills and ability to use the learning.

We should not lose sight of the fact that within a learning approach

based on competency, it is the performance, the process and the product,

which are strictly speaking, indicators of competency

―

not the

competency itself. Here, the degree of inference is relatively decreased

in relation to other indicators.

Therefore, the value relative to the evaluation of performance, the

evaluation of the process, and the evaluation of the product, refer

essentially to the methodological dimensions of change

―

resulting

from the modifications to the nature of learning we want to evaluate.

In a context of education within a competency-based approach, it seems

appropriate to speak of a “performance-based assessment” rather than a

“performance assessment”.

Methodology

assessment

When we speak of authentic assessment, we refer to the characteristics

of the tasks and evaluation contexts that are being investigated.

In an authentic evaluation, the student not only directly demonstrates his

mastery of the competency; he does it within a context and with tasks

that bear key similarities to real situations requiring the competency.

This authenticity of task and context can appear under various guises:

the stimulus, complex task, time allocated for the achievement of the

task, available resources, control of the student over how to carry out the

task, quality standards of performance, requirements, consequences, etc.

Methodology

Criteria-based

assessment

In an evaluation based on criteria, the evaluation judgment is supported

by criteria and comparing student results to the targeted end-of-learning

objectives rather than by comparing them to the results of a global

student population.

Methodology

Translated from

Pédagogie collégiale,

vol. 9, n

o

4, May 1996.

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An evaluation of learning marked by the new paradigm

The new paradigm involves important changes to our usual ways of evaluating learning. Below

is an outline of the methodological characteristics of an evaluation of learning at collegial level

that reflects the new trends.

The objects

The evaluation must be adapted to a competency-based approach, dealing with learning that is

complex, multidimensional, integrated and transferable. This requires an evaluation that:

— is global, holistic, multidimensional; contextualized;

— provides students with authentic opportunities to demonstrate their competencies;

— assures a standardization of conditions for evaluation criteria and success.

The function

Within the framework of the new paradigm, evaluation is truly at the service of learning. It must

be integrated into the teaching-learning process to guide, support, help the student to assume

responsibility for his learning and, finally, validate the learning achieved in a consistent fashion.

To achieve this, we must ensure that evaluations:

— are dynamic rather than static (snapshots taken at various moments to create a portrait of

learning in motion; focusing on the process used and not only results);

— are didactic in perspective, not exclusively docimological;

— are not merely official statements or judgments, but also provide a diagnostic dimension;

— are open to many adjustments in the pursuit of learning;

— benefit from the input of a variety of evaluators (teacher who guided the learning, other

teachers, students, evaluators from outside the school environment);

— are capable of encompassing not only the cognitive dimension but also affective aspects;

— withhold the final judgment on acquired learning until the end of the learning period.

The interpretation of results

It is necessary to use a criteria-based evaluation for an interpretation that judges the achievement

of learning objectives, rather than one that classifies students in relation to each other (evaluation

with a normative interpretation). This is an evaluation that:

— uses a qualitative approach with descriptive methods;

— is concerned with validity rather than discrimination resulting from a docimological

(measurement and evaluation) point of view.

Conclusion

Adopting the new paradigm means significant changes in the way we view and carry out

evaluations of learning. We believe that these changes can greatly benefit the collegial

environment and the school system in its entirety. It is necessary however to be aware that when

we speak of a paradigm change, we are on the side of specialists rather than practitioners.

Teachers are often quite adept with the paradigm of “pragmatic intuition” says De Ketele

4

. In

many cases, they are unaware of the thought processes at the heart of their own practices.

Therefore these practices can display varying degrees of similarities to the old paradigm that once

dominated the world of specialists.

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This great diversity in evaluation practices and their intuitive character must be taken into account

because they create difficulties when adopting a new frame of reference and new practices, in

particular with conceptual confusion and anachronistic elements (old concepts and practices that

persist within the new policies).

As stated by Howe and Ménard, “the transition from the old paradigm to the new one is not done

without confusion. Indeed, in pedagogical discourse, evaluation concepts are often incorrectly

identified as relating to one paradigm or another. And to further complicate the matter, many do

not even seem aware that a paradigm, old or new, is at the centre of this debate.”

To bring about pertinent changes that are coherent and long lasting, we need clarity and

understanding. It is also necessary for teachers to understand what lies beneath their practice, to

introduce greater controls and coherence and to link their practice to a frame of reference.

While aware of the work and remaining questions, it seems pertinent that teachers adopt coherent

evaluation methods based on the new perspective being implemented in the field of evaluation of

learning. Current thinking and experimentation carried out by teaching personnel will also

contribute to the consolidation of new trends.

1. Translated from J. Laliberté, “D’autres façons de concevoir et de faire l’évaluation des

apprentissages ”,

Pédagogie collégiale,

vol. 8, n

o

3, March 1995, p. 9-13; Robert Howe

and Louise Ménard, “Un nouveau paradigme en évaluation des apprentissages ”

Pédagogie collégiale,

vol. 6, n

o

3, March 1993, p. 36-40.

2. Robert Howe and Louise Ménard,

ibid.

, p. 39.

3.

C. Hadji, “L’apprentissage assisté par l’évaluation (A. A. E.), mythe ou réalité? ”

Cahiers pédagogiques,

n

o

231, February 1990, p. 20-23.

4. J.-M. De Ketele, “L’évaluation conjuguée en paradigmes ”,

Revue française de pédagogie

,

n° 103, April, May and June 1995, p. 59-80.

5. Robert Howe and Louise Ménard,

ibid

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centered on competencies

In many countries, recent and current educational reforms are centered on the implementation of

competency-based programs. This is true for pre-school, primary and secondary levels as well as

higher education. These reforms generally result from an educational paradigm that is shifting

from systems centered on teaching to systems centered on learning. In turn, these changes impact

evaluation practices whether they deal with the evaluation of learning and teaching, or the

evaluation of a program and an institution.

In such a context,

the implementation of programs centered on the development of

competencies calls for a change in the “evaluation culture”

and confirms the necessity to

accord equal importance to the progress of learning and the final validation of the targeted

competencies. To monitor the progress of learning we need “authentic” and/or “alternative”

evaluation practices that identify and document progress and a demonstration of learning.

According to Philippe Perrenoud, in a context where it is necessary “to act urgently and decide in

uncertainty”, it is essential to distinguish between competency-based programs and programs

based on pedagogical objectives, then to accurately define the concept of competency and to

analyze its impact on teaching activities and the evaluation of learning.

When we speak of an evaluation based on competencies, we are interested in the mobilization by

the student of integrated knowledge for the purpose of accomplishing a specific action

(production or construction of knowledge) where effectiveness will depend on the judgment

exercised by the student. A competency is evaluated via

complex and practical tasks

necessary to

carry out a role or function. Evaluation of learning in a program centered on competencies

focuses on the accomplishment of a variety of tasks to deduce the presence of a competency. The

tools required for the competency assessment will relate to tasks that are as close as possible to

those the students will encounter both inside their academic environment and outside. This

involves the

authentic

evaluation described below. To get a picture of “The vision behind study

programs centered on competencies: their impact on planning and evaluation”, we cover, in this

activity, the following aspects:

— The development of study programs:

o

study programs based on pedagogical objectives,

o

study programs centered on competencies;

— The concept of competency;

— The characteristics of competencies and their impact on planning;

— The characteristics of competencies and their impact on evaluation;

— Principles connected to the evaluation of a competency;

— The concept of authentic evaluation.

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Chapter Synopsis:

Activity 3:

course planning and the evaluation of learning

Activity 3.1:

Study program and the concept of competency

Activity 3.2:

Characteristics of a competency and their impact

Activity 3.3:

Principles connected to the assessment of a competency

and the contribution of the authentic assessment

Learning tools:

Learning tool 3.A:

Development of a study program

Learning tool 3.B:

Definition of a competency

Learning tool 3.C:

Characteristics of competencies and their impact on

course planning and the evaluation of learning

Learning tool 3.D:

Characteristics of competencies and their impact on

course planning

Learning tool 3.E:

Characteristics of competencies and their impact on the

evaluation of learning

Learning tool 3.F:

Principles connected to the assessment of a competency

Learning tool 3.G:

The authentic evaluation

Learning tool 3.H:

Tension between traditional and modern ways of

thinking

Documents:

Document 3.A:

Development of a study program

Document 3.B:

Evaluation in authentic situations (the foundation)

Complementary documents:

Complementary document 3:

François LASNIER, The principles of evaluation in

competency-based learning (CBL) linked to the

principles of competency-based learning (CBL)

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Activity 3

Characteristics of competencies and their impact

on course planning and the evaluation of learning

Heading

Characteristics of competencies and their impact

Objectives

The comparison between a study program based on pedagogical objectives and

one centered on competencies.

To validate one’s concept of competency.

To evaluate the impact of the characteristics of a competency on instructional

planning and the evaluation of learning.

Description

The vision behind a study program centered on competencies is a replacement

solution for programs based on objectives that are connected to a disciplinary

content. In a competency-based approach, the focus is not on content that is

external to the individual but rather on the integration by the individual of

knowledge (theoretical and practical), skills and the attitudes necessary for the

accomplishment of complex tasks that are meaningful to the student and

necessary for his later adaptation to adult life.

Once this vision is understood, the activity focuses on a definition of the

concept of competency. Characteristics of the concept are evaluated relative

to their impact on instructional planning and particularly on the evaluation of

learning. Subsequent to this, we can identify principles connected to the

evaluation of a competency and justify the use of authentic evaluations.

Unfolding

Activity 3.1: Study programs and the concept of competency

Study programs

A. Give each participant the synthesis reference card (Learning tool 3.A)

“Development of a study program”. After an initial reading, each

individual completes the card while jotting down his thoughts on each of

the statements.

B. Using the synthesis reference card, information is pooled and discussed

in small work groups.

C. Recommended preliminary reading of the document: “Development of a

study program” (Document 3.A) that introduces the foundations of a

competency-based program.

Concept of competency

D. Participants take a few moments to write their own definition of

competency.

E. Pooling of the definitions of competency drafted by participants.

F. Discussion

on

the

proposed

definition

of

a

competency

(Learning tool 3.B).

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Activity 3.2: Characteristics of a competency and their impact

G. Presentation, clarification and exchanges on the characteristics of a

competency using learning tool 3.C: “Characteristics of competencies

and their impact on course planning and the evaluation of learning.”

H. Individually, each participant completes the second column of learning

tool 3.C.

I. In groups, validate the answers using learning tool 3.D: “Characteristics

of a competency and their impact on instructional planning”.

J. Individually, each participant completes the third column of learning tool

3.C

K. In groups, validate the answers using learning tool 3.E: “Characteristics

of a competency and their impact on the evaluation of learning”.

L. Reserve some time at the end of the meeting to allow participants to

individually assess the consequences of what they have observed as well

as their own evaluation practices and to share this with other participants.

the contribution of the authentic assessment

Principles connected to an evaluation

M. Presentation, clarification and group exchanges on the principles

connected to the assessment of a competency using learning tool 3.F.

N. Evaluate the need, relevance and usefulness of the principles connected

to the assessment of a competency.

O. Make a global assessment by analyzing the impact on personal evaluation

practices.

Authentic evaluation

P.

Presentation, clarification and group exchanges on the concept of

“authentic evaluation” using learning tool 3.G “The authentic evaluation”

and Document 3.B “Evaluation in authentic situations (the foundations)”.

We can also refer to learning tool 6.F for a description of an authentic

situation.

Q. Discussion on the contribution of this concept to the development of a

competency.

R. Make a global assessment by analyzing the consequences on personal

evaluation practices.

Assessment relative to the changes

S. Individual reading of learning tool 3.H: “Tension between traditional and

modern ways of thinking”.

T. Group exchanges on the implications of change.

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Moderator’s role

To support personal reflection.

To reach a consensus.

To use strategies that assist in the structuring of knowledge.

Participants’ role

To freely express personal concepts.

To actively participate in group exchanges to compare and validate personal

concepts.

Required material

Learning tools:

—

Learning tool 3.A: Development of a study program

—

Learning tool 3.B: Definition of a competency

—

Learning tool 3.C: Characteristics of competencies and their impact on

course planning and the evaluation of learning

—

Learning tool 3.D: Characteristics of competencies and their impact on

course planning

— Learning tool 3.E: Characteristics of competencies and their impact on

the evaluation of learning

—

Learning tool 3.F: Principles connected to the assessment of a

competency

—

Learning tool 3.G: The authentic evaluation

—

Learning tool 3.H: Tension between traditional and modern ways of

thinking

Documents:

—

Document 3.A:

Development of a study program

—

Document 3.B:

Evaluation in authentic situations

documents

—

Complementary document 3:

François Lasnier, The principles of evaluation in competency-based

learning (CBL) linked to the principles of competency-based learning

(CBL)

Approximate

duration

Activity 3.1: 3 hours

Activity 3.2: 4 hours

Activity 3.3: 3 hours

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Learning tool 3.A

Development of a study program

41

Goals of a study program based

on competency development

Study programs based on teaching objectives

generally target a vast amount of knowledge, skills

and components of social development that the

student must acquire to function adequately in life.

This goal is generally reflected in disciplinary

content that tends to be piecemeal and divided into

teaching objectives.

The vision behind a study program centered on

competencies is also a replacement solution for

programs based on objectives linked to a

disciplinary content. In a competency-based

approach, the focus is not on contents external to

the individual, but rather on the integration by the

individual of knowledge (theoretical and practical),

skills and attitudes necessary to satisfactorily

accomplish complex and meaningful tasks, that are

necessary for the adaptation of the student to adult

life.

Several authors clearly stress the need to base the

new study programs on a cognitivist approach to

competencies.

Personal comments on the subject

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41

Translated from Roland Louis,

L’évaluation des apprentissages en classe : Théorie et pratique

, Éditions Études Vivantes,

Montréal, 1999, p. 19-26.

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Study program based on

Study program centered on

Definition of a teaching objective

Definition of a competency

A teaching objective is a statement of intent that

specifies and determines lasting changes that are to

take place in a subject during a teaching situation or

subsequent to one.

An objective is defined for each of the disciplinary

contents and identifies the learning to be acquired

by the student.

From a cognitivist perspective, competency is a

state and ability to act rather than a specific action.

This state is dependent on a structure of conceptual

knowledge and methodology, attitudes and values

that enable the person to make assessments and

adapt actions to complex and varied situations.

Competency is the exercise of judgment in the

choice and application of required knowledge to

effectively carry out an action based on a problem

statement and the context in which the action takes

place.

Competency is the result of a mobilization by the

student of declarative, procedural and conditional

knowledge for the successful accomplishment of an

action having implications on his environment and

his adaptation to adult life.

Personal comments on the subject

…………………………………………………….………………………

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Study program based on

Study program centered on

Characteristics

Dependent on an approach where disciplinary

contents are

external to the individual,

objectives

are usually specific

to subject matter and the

acquisition of knowledge and skills development

occurs theoretically, in a sequential manner.

This approach tends to cause teachers to focus on

covering the content of the discipline and to parcel

out the learning given to students.

Moreover, the cognitive aspect (knowledge and

skills) tends to become more important than the

emotional aspect (personal conduct).

Inspired by behaviourist theory, a teaching

objective:

— is external to the learner in training;

— is predetermined and fixed;

— parcels out the contents of learning and argues

that the sum of the parts is equal to the whole;

— generally distinguishes learning according to

cognitive

(cognitive

skills),

emotional

(attitudes) and psychomotor (psychomotor

skills) fields;

— generally considers that failure to achieve an

objective is an indicator of the absence of

learning in the individual.

From this standpoint, a competency displays the

following characteristics:

— it is internal to the person;

— it integrates knowledge, skills and attitudes;

— it manifests itself in events and in problem

situations occurring in a person’s life;

A person’s lack of demonstration of mastery of a

competency does not necessarily mean it is absent.

It can mean that for various reasons, the context

does not allow the competency to be called into use.

The judgment that the student must exercise is

based on three types of knowledge required to

perform the action and evaluate its effectiveness

within a specific context. As the definition of a

competency suggests, the teacher does not view

knowledge in an isolated way. Rather he is attentive

to:

— the integration of three types of knowledge that

allow the competency to be used;

— transversal knowledge relative to various

disciplines;

— the exercise student judgment in the effective

accomplishment of the action.

Personal comments on the subject

………………………………………………………

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Study program based on

Study program centered on

competency development

When our attention is focused on the content of a

discipline, we tend to emphasize what the student

must know and do in order to fulfill the

requirements for mastery. This is why the definition

includes a set objectives referred to as pedagogical

because they are centered on expected student

learning.

From this point of view, knowledge results from the

accumulation of specific skills (objectives)

prioritized according to the requirements of the

discipline.

The evaluative approach that results

from this paradigm will focus on a quantitative

analysis of the knowledge acquired by the person

undergoing the training.

Consequently, the evaluation will generally pay

attention to objectives of a cognitive nature

connected to the discipline. This is what we call an

evaluation centered on disciplinary content.

The evaluation of learning consists in validating the

accomplishment of preset objectives that relate only

to the content of the discipline that is being studied

by the learner.

The logic that guides evaluations centered on preset

behaviour objectives, seems different from

evaluations that take student judgment into account

when mobilizing knowledge for the effective

accomplishment of an action.

Practices originating from the use of preset

objectives lead to evaluations that separate

declarative knowledge from procedural and

conditional knowledge.

For example, questions in one exam may measure

declarative knowledge, procedural knowledge and

sometimes conditional knowledge separately. The

totality of correct answers is then considered an

indicator of student integration of the three types of

knowledge.

When an evaluation centered on competencies is

used, it is necessary to pay attention to the

mobilization by the student of the

three types of

integrated knowledge

used to carry out an action

(production or construction of learning) and its

effectiveness will depend on this judgment.

There is another characteristic that distinguishes an

objective from a competency. If the objective

normally

derives

directly

from

theoretical

knowledge

and

disciplinary

content,

the

competency on the other hand is based on

complex

and

practical

tasks

necessary

for

the

accomplishment of a role or function. Disciplinary

content is, of course, always present. However, this

is only one category of the resources necessary for

completion of the task.

In other words, if the accomplishment of a task

requires specific disciplinary knowledge, the

mastery of this knowledge is not necessarily an

indication of the ability to realize the task. The

evaluation of learning in a program centered on

competencies will focus on the accomplishment of

a variety of tasks, which infer the presence of the

competency. The tools necessary for an assessment

of competency will relate as much as possible to

tasks that are close to student’s real life, in and

away from school.

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Personal comments on the subject

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Learning tool 3.B

The recommended definition designed to support program development is as follows: “A training

objective

centered on the development of the student’s ability to identify and effectively solve, in an

autonomous way, problems specific to a family of situations on the basis of integrated and pertinent

resources”.

The table below details this definition.

Competency is …

—

A training objective

In a training context, it is the final referent in training (objective to be

reached during the training period), its meaning reflects general training

needs, the work function or the capacity for higher education in a given

field, thus the entry level for a particular function.

—

development of student

ability

A competency is acquired

through practice. It requires time and

frequent use by the student himself.

—

to be autonomous

To be competent means that a person is able to identify and use

necessary resources, in an autonomous manner.

—

resolve

A competency requires a problem situation where a strategy or

procedure must be used to reach a targeted goal.

—

effectively

The implementation of a competency by the student must be effective

and produce the desired results, in conformity with established

standards.

—

family of situations

Competency is always contextualized; it is always linked to a field of

activity or given knowledge.

—

integrated and pertinent

resources

Competency is a structured unit that integrates diverse resources

(knowledge, skills, attitudes and values) to make up a competency, with

each resource being called upon when required.

These resources are pertinent

because they were selected on the basis of

their usefulness and potential for action in real life or in a specific

disciplinary field.

Translated from Pôle de lest, (1996) and D. Raymond, (2001).

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The characteristics of competencies

An analysis of the various definitions of “competency” enables us to identify its essential characteristics.

The sum of these characteristics amounts to its overall qualities. Some characteristics complete each

other, others define and some are connected by cause and effect. These characteristics have an impact on

the pedagogical development of programs, course planning and the evaluation of learning. The

characteristics are outlined below.

Identified characteristics

A competency is a second generation objective, A TRAINING TARGET.

A competency is MULTIDIMENSIONAL.

A competency is A POTENTIAL FOR ACTION.

A competency is defined in relation to known benchmarks: STANDARDS.

A competency is AN ABILITY LINKED TO A REAL LIFE ACTIVITY.

A competency is AN INTEGRATED TOTALITY of skills.

A competency is a skill acquired as a result of EXPERIENCE.

A competency relies on PERTINENT knowledge.

A competency is ability TO DEFINE THE SCOPE OF PROBLEMS and RESOLVE

THEM.

A competency is related to a SPECIFIC FIELD of action.

A competency is A CAPACITY FOR IMMEDIATE ACTION.

A competency is A CAPACITY FOR EFFECTIVE ACTION.

A competency is A CAPACITY FOR STABILITY OF ACTION.

A competency is A FINAL TRAINING OBJECTIVE.

These characteristics can be grouped in several ways. To group them helps improve retention and

integration. Each grouping has a specific meaning. For example, see below:

A competency is a final training target that:

— is centered on the development of a capacity for autonomous action that is immediate,

standardized and stable;

— relies on the identification and resolution of problems in a specific field of action;

— mobilizes multidimensional resources that are integrated and pertinent (knowledge, skills,

attitudes and values).

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Learning tool 3.C

Characteristics of competencies and

their impact on course planning

and

the evaluation of learning

42

Characteristics

Consequently, in my

evaluation, I …

1- A competency is a

TRAINING

OBJECTIVE.

Which means:

…………………………………

…………………………………

…………………………………

…………………………………

…………………………….......

List required actions

…………………………………

…………………………………

…………………………………

…………………………………

…………………………………

…………………………………

…………………………………

List required actions

…………………………………

…………………………………

…………………………………

…………………………………

…………………………………

…………………………………

…………………………………

2- A competency is

MULTIDIMENSIONAL

.

Which means:

…………………………………

…………………………………

…………………………………

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…………………………….......

List required actions

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List required actions

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3- A competency is a

POTENTIAL FOR ACTION.

Which means:

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List required actions

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List required actions

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42

Translated from the characteristics of a competency by Pierre Deshaies, Hermann Guy and Michel Poirier, “La conception

de la compétence”,

Recueil intégrateur, Section I : Une vision intégrée de la formation au collégial

, (soon to be published),

Sherbrooke, regroupement des collèges Performa, 2003.

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Page 102 de 383

4- A competency is defined in

relation

to

a

known

threshold:

A STANDARD

.

Which means:

…………………………………

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List required actions

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List required actions

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5- A competency is

AN

ABILITY LINKED TO A

REAL LIFE ACTIVITY

.

Which means:

…………………………………

…………………………………

…………………………………

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…………………………….......

List required actions

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List required actions

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6- A competency is

AN

INTEGRATED TOTALITY

of

skills.

Which means:

…………………………………

…………………………………

…………………………………

…………………………………

…………………………….......

List required actions

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List required actions

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7- A competency is a skill

acquired as a result of

EXPERIENCE

.

Which means:

…………………………………

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List required actions

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List required actions

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Page 103 de 383

8- A competency relies on

PERTINENT

knowledge.

Which means:

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List required actions

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List required actions

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9- A competency is the ability

TO DEFINE THE

SCOPE OF PROBLEMS

and RESOLVE THEM

.

Which means:

…………………………………

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…………………………….......

List required actions

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List required actions

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10- A competency is related to

a

SPECIFIC FIELD

of

action.

Which means:

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List required actions

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List required actions

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11- A competency is a

CAPACITY FOR

IMMEDIATE

ACTION

.

Which means:

………………………………

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List required actions

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List required actions

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Page 104 de 383

12- A competency is a

CAPACITY FOR

EFFECTIVE

ACTION

.

Which means:

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List required actions

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List required actions

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13- A competency is a

CAPACITY FOR

STABILITY

OF ACTION

.

Which means:

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List required actions

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List required actions

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14- A competency is a

FINAL

TRAINING OBJECTIVE

.

Which means:

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List required actions

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List required actions

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Page 105 de 383

Characteristics of competencies and their impact on course planning

43

Characteristics

Explanation

Impact on planning

1- A competency is a

TRAINING

OBJECTIVE

.

A competency is first and foremost a

training

objective

, i.e. a 2

nd

generation objective achieved

during

the course of studies. It is dependent on a

standard that has been adapted to a training level and

not the level of competency of an expert in the field.

(see characteristic 5)

— Make sure that the goal is adapted to the

level of training

— Ensure the goal is adapted to the role of

the course within the program

— Make sure that the goal is written in

language understood by the student so he

may position his learning relative to the

targeted competency

— Make sure that the summative evaluation

deals as much as possible exclusively with

the competency and its use by the student

2- A competency is

MULTIDIMENSIONAL.

Once acquired, the competency becomes a capacity.

This capacity to act relies on resources

concurrently

connected

to

cognitive,

psychomotor

and

socioaffective fields. A competency is not one-

dimensional. (see characteristic 6)

— Highlight essential components connected

to each of the three resource fields

— Create teaching and learning activities that

incorporate each type of resource

— Create teaching and learning activities that

target the integration of resources

connected to each field

— Present the student with complete and

global tasks connected to each field

43

Translated from Pierre Deshaies, Hermann Guy and Michel Poirier, “La conception de la compétence”,

Recueil intégrateur, Section I : Une vision intégrée de la formation au

collégial

, (à paraître), Sherbrooke, regroupement des collèges Performa, 2003.

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Page 106 de 383

Characteristics of competencies and their impact on course planning

Characteristics

Explanation

Impact on planning

3- A competency is a

POTENTIAL FOR

ACTION

.

A competency is an internal state, a potential linked

to an action and not the action itself, which is its

performance (the observable and measurable

components of competencies); some authors use the

expressions “virtual competency” and “effective

competency”. The principal indicator of an

effective

competency is the successful resolution of the

problem; other indicators are the

process

used, how

the student

describes

his own process and the result

of his actions

.

— Plan teaching, learning and evaluation

activities relative to the 3 following

indicators: result of actions, the process

used, how the student describes his own

process and the result of his actions

— Evaluate, or have the student self-

evaluate frequently the use of a

competency in all its complexity

— Guide the student to describe and

evaluate his own problem solving process

4- A competency is defined in relation

to a known threshold,

A

STANDARD

.

A competency is the ability to act effectively with a

degree of mastery that varies according to the level of

training. A competency thus implies a

consensus

on

conditions of achievement, on criteria and on a

minimal threshold of performance

adapted to the

level of training

. Without this consensus, a definition

of the targeted competency is not possible nor is a

shared judgment validating the existence or non-

existence of the competency.

— Develop a concerted approach to

evaluation among teachers, in each of the

program courses (conditions of

achievement, criteria and common

thresholds)

— Provide students with evaluation grids

that have precise performance thresholds

5- A competency is an

LINKED TO A REAL LIFE ACTIVITY

.

A competency is a training objective that is pertinent

due to its

real connection

to

post-education

, i.e. the

labour world, university and everyday living. The

selection of targeted competencies in a given program

is based on an analysis of work related situations,

training related situations, real life and social

situations. (see characteristic 8)

— Ensure an understanding of the

objective’s relevance

— Highlight the objective’s relevance during

the course presentation

— Respect the objective’s relevance in the

planning of learning activities

— Present the student with complex tasks

that are as real as possible (“authentic”

situations)

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Page 107 de 383

Characteristics of competencies and their impact on course planning

Characteristics

Explanation

Impact on planning

6- A competency is an

INTEGRATED

TOTALITY

of skills.

A competency is an ability that rests on a

structured

whole

and

integrates

various types of resources:

knowledge, skills, attitudes and values. (see

characteristic 2)

— Highlight the structure of the resources

linked to the competency

— Create teaching and learning activities

that target the development of this type

competency within the student

7- A competency is a skill acquired as a

result of

EXPERIENCE

.

A competency is an ability to resolve problems with

adroitness subsequent to repeated use.

— Ask the student frequently to use the

competency in all its complexity

8- A competency relies on

PERTINENT

knowledge.

A competency is an ability that rests on an

organized

network

of

pertinent

resources (knowledge, skills,

attitudes, and values), specific to the competency; it

is not the discipline that decides the relevance of

these resources, but their usefulness and potential

ability to act within a field. (see characteristic 5)

— Identify resources that are essential to the

development of the competency

— Highlight the relevance of these resources

within the development of the

competency

— Create teaching, learning and evaluation

activities that focus mainly on these

essential resources

9- A competency is the ability

TO

DEFINE THE SCOPE OF PROBLEMS

and

RESOLVE THEM

.

A competency is an ability to resolve problems: the

student must construct a mental model of the problem

and identify the process used to reach the goal.

Autonomously,

the student must know: what to do,

how to do it, when and why, and to anticipate the

consequences. Finally he must self-evaluate his

actions based on specific criteria.

— Identify situations where the student must

detect the problem, find a model and

resolve it by himself

— Schedule frequent problem resolution

activities for the student

— Explicitly teach procedures required for

action

— Gradually guide the student to self-

evaluate his performance

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Page 108 de 383

Characteristics of competencies and their impact on course planning

Characteristics

Explanation

Impact on planning

10- A competency is related to a

SPECIFIC

FIELD

of action.

A competency is an ability linked to a diversity of

actions in a family of situations. It is specific to a

field of activities yet remains general, i.e., it remains

the same for a whole range of actions within the

field. The student must surpass the specificity of the

action and be able to carry out other actions in

similar but different contexts, i.e., to “transfer” the

knowledge.

— Teach the student to reflect on the

structure of resources linked to the

competency

— Teach the student to surpass the

specificity of the problem by identifying

the general character of the problem and

the process used

11- A competency is a

CAPACITY FOR

IMMEDIATE

ACTION

.

A competency is an ability to identify and resolve

problems

rapidly

yet